Information provided by the news media plays a key role in the construction of people’s perceptions about reality (McCombs & Shaw, 1972)◦ Why do we care about our perceptions about

reality? To understand this influence, we must

understand at least two processes: ◦ The social processes through which news content

is created.◦ The psychological processes through which this

content is digested.

Two useful theoretical frameworks help us to understand how news media influence our perceived social reality◦ Agenda-setting theory◦ Schema theory

Events: discrete occurrencese.g. Taiwan’s president proposes to join UN.

Issues: ongoing news coverage of a series of events that fit together in a broad categorye.g. China / US Relations

Gatekeepers: people that decide which events / issues to report◦ Newsworthiness: determined by the traditions, practices

and values of media professionals

Media

Agenda

Public

Agenda

Policy

Agenda

Three Components of Agenda Setting

Content Analysis (1968 presidential campaign coverage)◦ local and national newspapers and TV◦ identified prominent news stories

◦ based on position and length Survey

◦ asked local Chapel Hill voters:◦ “What are the key campaign issues?”

Results:◦ Strong Correlation between Media Agenda and Public Agenda

Media

Agenda

Public

Agenda

Policy

Agenda

Correlation does not mean causation

Later studies measured opinions over time

Some evidence shows that media sets the agenda for the public

(e.g., Iyengar & Kinder experiments)

but . . .

Individual Differences◦ some people have a higher need for orientation

Multiple Agenda Setters◦ the media ‘gatekeepers’◦ politicians◦ public relations professionals◦ Interest groups

Framing◦ context◦ mood◦ selectivity◦ the media doesn’t report the news, they report

news stories

Priming◦ a news story on a given issue sparks (or primes)

an individual’s memory of related issues◦ opinions are a result of both

the news story cues the primed memories

◦ e.g. Middle East & unstable political situation

Media

Agenda

Public

Agenda

Policy

Agenda

Other Factors

(e.g. Ind. Diff.)

Recall from an earlier lecture:◦ We have a mental map of the world. ◦ There are two separate approaches to mental

representation. Schematic representation (schema) Associationistic representation

Ideas and concepts are organized in a logical and hierarchical (schematic) fashion. ◦ Schemata are “cognitive structures of organized prior

knowledge, abstracted from experience with specific instances; schemata guide the processing of new information and the retrieving of stored information” (Fiske & Linville, 1980, p. 543).

There are four types of schemata, including: ◦ (a) person schemata (i.e., interpretations of individuals’

psychology), ◦ (b) self-schemata (i.e., information about one’s psychology), ◦ (c) role schemata (i.e., perceptions about inter-group

relations and broad social categories). e.g., what is a “chief executive”? e.g., What does a “chief executive” do? e.g., what is Taiwan? A country? A province?

◦ (d) event schemata (i.e., information about sequences of events in social situations) e.g., what should a government do when attacked by

terrorists? e.g., how is the chief executive of HKSAR elected?

Media can create new schemata◦ e.g., American’s perception of the world after

9/11.◦ e.g., Hong Kong’s government structure after

handover Media can strengthen existing schemata

◦ e.g., social stereotypes about mainlanders◦ e.g., political beliefs

political socialization – a developmental process by which young people acquire cognitions, attitudes and behaviors relating to their political environment.

adolescence is a time of particular importance for this process because it is a time of great change, including many developmental advances

Most people form a stable political view during adolescences and usually NEVER change.

During adolescence◦ critical thought is characterized by an increased

capacity and speed of processing as compared to younger children

◦ There is an increase in knowledge and an ability to integrate these knowledge.

◦ In addition, there is a greater ability in adolescence, as compared to young children, for self-regulation and monitoring as more strict standards are applied by the adolescent.

However, as this cognitive pattern is not yet

consolidated, adolescents often also engage in hasty generalization and rush to premature judgments based on segmented pieces of information.

These skills, abilities, and tendencies may be especially relevant as adolescents consider political issues, situations, and decisions and as they integrate political knowledge gathered from various sources.

Sources of political knowledge◦ Parents◦ School◦ Peers◦ MEDIA

Media exposure has been identified as an important influence with regard to political socialization.

the media, and television in particular, play a significant role in the creation and reinforcement of political attitudes.

Empirical evidence suggests that exposure to television are related to ◦ political orientation ◦ attitudes about political parties◦ The electoral process, ◦ issues of military conflict ◦ gun control policies◦ Capital punishment◦ Abortion

etc.

In recent years, media researchers have begun to recognize the importance of cognition in the realm of political socialization.◦ We all have schemas about what politic is and

how we should participate.◦ One important source from which we can learn

these social scripts about political matters is the media.

However, ◦ such scripts will be different based on the content

to which the adolescents are exposed. ◦ Heavy news exposure is likely to result in different

schemata

War Political party Economy Political involvement

Some questions to thinking about◦ Who’s watching?◦ Who’s watching what?◦ Who participates actively in politics? Elders?

Youth? The rich? The poor? ◦ Do political attitude translate to political action?

Agenda-setting◦ Old media

agenda set by the industry based on professional training, political needs, and audience feedback

Slow/delayed feedback Limited content Delayed content

◦ New media Agenda may be set by the user, or other users. (e.g., Blogs,

citizen journalism) Instant /real-time feedback User generated (unlimited content) Real-time update

Schema formation ◦ New media Selective exposure strengthen existing

schemata

Does new media really increase more political participation?◦ Apparently not!◦ Individual differences becomes more important

Political views become more extreme It is more difficult to present objective/unbiased

information Allows apathetic individuals to completely avoid

politics

More sophisticated knowledge structure Encouraging fact checking

◦ Hyperlinks◦ Verification by multiple sources

More difficult for politicians and mass media to skew the issue◦ Diverse group of content providers

Encouraging civic participation◦ Easier to mobilize citizens (e.g., organizing a

protest)◦ Stay focused on issues of interest