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GEOIDE SSII-109
M A P D I S T O R T I O N S
MAP DISTORTION
• No map projection maintains correct scale
throughout
• The intersection of any two lines on the Earth is
represented on the map at the same or different
angle
• Map projections aim to either minimize scale,
angular or area distortion
TISSOT'S THEOREM
At every point there are two orthogonal principal directions
which are perpendicular on both the Earth (u) and the map
(u')
Figure (A) displays a point on the Earth and (B) a point on the
projection
TISSOT'S INDICATRIX
• An infinitely small circle on the Earth will project
as an infinitely small ellipse on any map
projection (except conformal projections where
it is a circle)
• Major and minor axis of ellipse are directly related to the scale distortion and the
maximum angular deformation
SCALE DISTORTION
• The ratio of an infinitesimal linear distance in any
direction at any point on the projection and the
corresponding infinitesimal linear distance on the
Earth
• h – scale distortion along the meridians
• k – scale distortion along the parallels
MAXIMUM ANGULAR DEFORMATION AND AREAL SCALE FACTOR
• Maximum angular deformation, w is the biggest deviation from
principle directions define on the Earth to the principle directions
define on the map
• Occurs in each of the four quadrants
define by the principle directions
of Tissot's indicatrix
• Areal scale factor is the exaggeration
of an infinitesimally small area at a
particular point
NOTES
• Three tangent points are taken for a number of
different azimuthal projection:
(φ, λ)= (0°, 0°), (φ, λ)= (45° N, 0°), (φ, λ)= (80° N, 0°)
• Each projection covers a ‘square’ on the Earth, with
latitude and longitude increasing in increments of 1°
• Ellipsoidal (WGS84) equations are used for the
projections
AZIMUTHAL PROJECTIONS
• Direction or azimuth from the centre of the
projection to every other point on the map is show
correctly
• Scale and distortions change only with the distance
from the centre
• One standard point (centre of projection)
LAMBERT AZIMUTHAL EQUAL AREA
• Equal area
• Central meridian is a straight line on all aspects
• All other meridians and parallels are complex curves
• Not a perspective projection
• Scale increases radially as the distance increases
from the tangent point
• Scale increases in the direction perpendicular to
radii as the distance increases from the tangent
point
LAMBERT AZIMUTHAL EQUAL AREA
Latitude (°) 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E Latitude (°) 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E
2 N 1.0000 0.9999 0.9998 0.9999 1.0000 2 N 1.0000 1.0001 1.0002 1.0001 1.0000
1 N 1.0001 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0001 1 N 0.9999 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999
0 1.0002 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0002 0 0.9998 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9998
1 S 1.0001 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0001 1 S 0.9999 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999
2 S 1.0000 0.9999 0.9998 0.9999 1.0000 2 S 1.0000 1.0001 1.0002 1.0001 1.0000
Latitude (°) 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E Latitude (°) 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E
47 N 0.9999 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9999 47 N 1.0001 1.0002 1.0002 1.0002 1.0001
46 N 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999 1.0000 1.0000 46 N 1.0000 1.0000 1.0001 1.0000 1.0000
45 N 1.0001 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0001 45 N 0.9999 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999
44 N 1.0001 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0001 44 N 0.9999 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999
43 N 1.0000 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 1.0000 43 N 1.0000 1.0001 1.0001 1.0001 1.0000
Latitude (°) 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E Latitude (°) 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E
82 N 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 82 N 1.0002 1.0002 1.0002 1.0002 1.0002
81 N 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 81 N 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
80 N 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 80 N 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
79 N 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 79 N 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
78 N 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 78 N 1.0001 1.0001 1.0001 1.0001 1.0001
Longitude (°) Longitude (°)
Longitude (°) Longitude (°)
Scale Distortion Along Meridians (h) Scale Distortion Along Parallels (k)Longitude (°) Longitude (°)
LAMBERT AZIMUTHAL EQUAL AREA
Latitude (°) 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E
2 N 2' 5.65'' 1' 18.54'' 1' 2.83'' 1' 18.54'' 2' 5.65''
1 N 1' 18.54'' 31.41'' 15.71'' 31.41'' 1' 18.54''
0 1' 2.84'' 15.71'' 0 15.71'' 1' 2.84''
1 S 1' 18.54'' 31.41'' 15.71'' 31.41'' 1' 18.54''
2 S 2' 5.65'' 1' 18.54'' 1' 2.83'' 1' 18.54'' 2' 5.65''
Latitude (°) 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E
47 N 1' 49.95'' 1' 26.74'' 1' 18.95'' 1' 26.74'' 1' 49.95''
46 N 55.90'' 32.01'' 23.76'' 32.01'' 55.90''
45 N 33.55'' 9.73'' 0 9.73'' 33.55''
44 N 41.41'' 16.71'' 7.65'' 16.71'' 41.41''
43 N 1' 20.23'' 55.20'' 46.72'' 55.20'' 1' 20.23''
Latitude (°) 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E
82 N 1' 9.91'' 1' 8.76'' 1' 8.37'' 1' 8.76'' 1' 49.95''
81 N 20.22'' 18.91'' 18.48'' 18.91'' 55.90''
80 N 2.14'' 0.68'' 0 0.68'' 33.55''
79 N 15.08'' 13.48'' 12.94'' 13.48'' 41.41''
78 N 59.60'' 57.87'' 57.30'' 57.87'' 1' 20.23''
Angular Deformation (w)
Longitude (°)
Longitude (°)
Longitude (°)
LAMBERT AZIMUTHAL EQUAL AREATISSOT’S INDICATRICES
Tangent Point: (φ, λ)= (0°, 0°)
If |a – b| < 0.001 ellipse
is shown in green colour
otherwise it is red
LAMBERT AZIMUTHAL EQUAL AREATISSOT’S INDICATRICES
Tangent Point: (φ, λ)= (45° N, 0°)
If |a – b| < 0.001 ellipse
is shown in green colour
otherwise it is red
LAMBERT AZIMUTHAL EQUAL AREATISSOT’S INDICATRICES
Tangent Point: (φ, λ)= (80° N, 0°)
If |a – b| < 0.001 ellipse
is shown in green colour
otherwise it is red
LAMBERT AZIMUTHAL EQUAL AREATISSOT’S INDICATRICES
Latitude (°) 5 W 4 W 3 W 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E 3 E 4 E 5 E
5N 1.0019 1.0016 1.0013 1.0011 1.0010 1.0010 1.0010 1.0011 1.0013 1.0016 1.0019
4 N 1.0016 1.0012 1.0010 1.0008 1.0006 1.0006 1.0006 1.0008 1.0010 1.0012 1.0016
3 N 1.0013 1.0010 1.0007 1.0005 1.0004 1.0003 1.0004 1.0005 1.0007 1.0010 1.0013
2 N 1.0011 1.0008 1.0005 1.0003 1.0002 1.0002 1.0002 1.0003 1.0005 1.0008 1.0011
1 N 1.0010 1.0006 1.0004 1.0002 1.0001 1.0000 1.0001 1.0002 1.0004 1.0006 1.0010
0 1.0010 1.0006 1.0003 1.0002 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0002 1.0003 1.0006 1.0010
1 S 1.0010 1.0006 1.0004 1.0002 1.0001 1.0000 1.0001 1.0002 1.0004 1.0006 1.0010
2 S 1.0011 1.0008 1.0005 1.0003 1.0002 1.0002 1.0002 1.0003 1.0005 1.0008 1.0011
3 S 1.0013 1.0010 1.0007 1.0005 1.0004 1.0003 1.0004 1.0005 1.0007 1.0010 1.0013
4S 1.0016 1.0012 1.0010 1.0008 1.0006 1.0006 1.0006 1.0008 1.0010 1.0012 1.0016
5 S 1.0019 1.0016 1.0013 1.0011 1.0010 1.0010 1.0010 1.0011 1.0013 1.0016 1.0019
Latitude (°) 5 W 4 W 3 W 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E 3 E 4 E 5 E
50 N 1.0015 1.0013 1.0012 1.0011 1.0011 1.0011 1.0011 1.0011 1.0012 1.0013 1.0015
49 N 1.0011 1.0010 1.0008 1.0008 1.0007 1.0007 1.0007 1.0008 1.0008 1.0010 1.0011
48 N 1.0009 1.0007 1.0006 1.0005 1.0004 1.0004 1.0004 1.0005 1.0006 1.0007 1.0009
47 N 1.0007 1.0005 1.0004 1.0003 1.0002 1.0002 1.0002 1.0003 1.0004 1.0005 1.0007
46 N 1.0005 1.0004 1.0002 1.0001 1.0001 1.0001 1.0001 1.0001 1.0002 1.0004 1.0005
45 N 1.0005 1.0003 1.0002 1.0001 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0001 1.0002 1.0003 1.0005
44 N 1.0005 1.0003 1.0002 1.0001 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0001 1.0002 1.0003 1.0005
43 N 1.0006 1.0004 1.0003 1.0002 1.0001 1.0001 1.0001 1.0002 1.0003 1.0004 1.0006
42 N 1.0008 1.0006 1.0005 1.0004 1.0003 1.0003 1.0003 1.0004 1.0005 1.0006 1.0008
41 N 1.0010 1.0009 1.0007 1.0006 1.0006 1.0005 1.0006 1.0006 1.0007 1.0009 1.0010
40 N 1.0014 1.0012 1.0010 1.0009 1.0009 1.0009 1.0009 1.0009 1.0010 1.0012 1.0014
Latitude (°) 5 W 4 W 3 W 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E 3 E 4 E 5 E
85N 1.0010 1.0010 1.0010 1.0010 1.0010 1.0010 1.0010 1.0010 1.0010 1.0010 1.0010
84 N 1.0007 1.0006 1.0006 1.0006 1.0006 1.0006 1.0006 1.0006 1.0006 1.0006 1.0007
83 N 1.0004 1.0004 1.0004 1.0004 1.0004 1.0004 1.0004 1.0004 1.0004 1.0004 1.0004
82 N 1.0002 1.0002 1.0002 1.0002 1.0002 1.0002 1.0002 1.0002 1.0002 1.0002 1.0002
81 N 1.0001 1.0001 1.0001 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0001 1.0001 1.0001
80 N 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
79 N 1.0001 1.0001 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0001 1.0001
78 N 1.0002 1.0002 1.0002 1.0001 1.0001 1.0001 1.0001 1.0001 1.0002 1.0002 1.0002
77 N 1.0004 1.0003 1.0003 1.0003 1.0003 1.0003 1.0003 1.0003 1.0003 1.0003 1.0004
76 N 1.0006 1.0006 1.0006 1.0006 1.0006 1.0006 1.0006 1.0006 1.0006 1.0006 1.0006
75 N 1.0010 1.0009 1.0009 1.0009 1.0009 1.0009 1.0009 1.0009 1.0009 1.0009 1.0010
Semi major - axis (a)
Longitude (°)
Longitude (°)
Longitude (°)
LAMBERT AZIMUTHAL EQUAL AREATISSOT’S INDICATRICES
Latitude (°) 5 W 4 W 3 W 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E 3 E 4 E 5 E
5N 0.9981 0.9984 0.9987 0.9989 0.9990 0.9990 0.9990 0.9989 0.9987 0.9984 0.9981
4 N 0.9984 0.9988 0.9990 0.9992 0.9994 0.9994 0.9994 0.9992 0.9990 0.9988 0.9984
3 N 0.9987 0.9990 0.9993 0.9995 0.9996 0.9997 0.9996 0.9995 0.9993 0.9990 0.9987
2 N 0.9989 0.9992 0.9995 0.9997 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9997 0.9995 0.9992 0.9989
1 N 0.9990 0.9994 0.9996 0.9998 0.9999 1.0000 0.9999 0.9998 0.9996 0.9994 0.9990
0 0.9990 0.9994 0.9997 0.9998 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9998 0.9997 0.9994 0.9990
1 S 0.9990 0.9994 0.9996 0.9998 0.9999 1.0000 0.9999 0.9998 0.9996 0.9994 0.9990
2 S 0.9989 0.9992 0.9995 0.9997 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9997 0.9995 0.9992 0.9989
3 S 0.9987 0.9990 0.9993 0.9995 0.9996 0.9997 0.9996 0.9995 0.9993 0.9990 0.9987
4S 0.9984 0.9988 0.9990 0.9992 0.9994 0.9994 0.9994 0.9992 0.9990 0.9988 0.9984
5 S 0.9981 0.9984 0.9987 0.9989 0.9990 0.9990 0.9990 0.9989 0.9987 0.9984 0.9981
Latitude (°) 5 W 4 W 3 W 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E 3 E 4 E 5 E
50 N 0.9985 0.9987 0.9988 0.9989 0.9989 0.9990 0.9989 0.9989 0.9988 0.9987 0.9985
49 N 0.9989 0.9990 0.9992 0.9992 0.9993 0.9993 0.9993 0.9992 0.9992 0.9990 0.9989
48 N 0.9991 0.9993 0.9994 0.9995 0.9996 0.9996 0.9996 0.9995 0.9994 0.9993 0.9991
47 N 0.9993 0.9995 0.9996 0.9997 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9997 0.9996 0.9995 0.9993
46 N 0.9995 0.9996 0.9998 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9998 0.9996 0.9995
45 N 0.9995 0.9997 0.9998 0.9999 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999 0.9998 0.9997 0.9995
44 N 0.9995 0.9997 0.9998 0.9999 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999 0.9998 0.9997 0.9995
43 N 0.9994 0.9996 0.9997 0.9998 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9998 0.9997 0.9996 0.9994
42 N 0.9992 0.9994 0.9995 0.9996 0.9997 0.9997 0.9997 0.9996 0.9995 0.9994 0.9992
41 N 0.9990 0.9991 0.9993 0.9994 0.9994 0.9995 0.9994 0.9994 0.9993 0.9991 0.9990
40 N 0.9986 0.9988 0.9990 0.9991 0.9991 0.9991 0.9991 0.9991 0.9990 0.9988 0.9986
Latitude (°) 5 W 4 W 3 W 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E 3 E 4 E 5 E
85N 0.9990 0.9990 0.9990 0.9990 0.9990 0.9990 0.9990 0.9990 0.9990 0.9990 0.9990
84 N 0.9993 0.9994 0.9994 0.9994 0.9994 0.9994 0.9994 0.9994 0.9994 0.9994 0.9993
83 N 0.9996 0.9996 0.9996 0.9996 0.9996 0.9996 0.9996 0.9996 0.9996 0.9996 0.9996
82 N 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998
81 N 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999
80 N 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
79 N 0.9999 0.9999 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999 0.9999
78 N 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998
77 N 0.9996 0.9997 0.9997 0.9997 0.9997 0.9997 0.9997 0.9997 0.9997 0.9997 0.9996
76 N 0.9994 0.9994 0.9994 0.9994 0.9994 0.9994 0.9994 0.9994 0.9994 0.9994 0.9994
75 N 0.9990 0.9991 0.9991 0.9991 0.9991 0.9991 0.9991 0.9991 0.9991 0.9991 0.9990
Longitude (°)
Longitude (°)
Longitude (°)
Semi minor - axis (b)
STEREOGRAPHIC
• Conformal
• Central meridian and a particular parallel (if shown)
are straight lines
• All other meridians and parallels are shown as arcs
of circles
• Scale increases away from the centre of the
projection
• Not truly perspective on a ellipsoid
STEREOGRAPHIC
Latitude (°) 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E Latitude (°) 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E
2 N 1.0006 1.0004 1.0003 1.0004 1.0006 2 N 1.0006 1.0004 1.0003 1.0004 1.0006
1 N 1.0004 1.0002 1.0001 1.0002 1.0004 1 N 1.0004 1.0002 1.0001 1.0002 1.0004
0 1.0003 1.0001 1.0000 1.0001 1.0003 0 1.0003 1.0001 1.0000 1.0001 1.0003
1 S 1.0004 1.0002 1.0001 1.0002 1.0004 1 S 1.0004 1.0002 1.0001 1.0002 1.0004
2 S 1.0006 1.0004 1.0003 1.0004 1.0006 2 S 1.0006 1.0004 1.0003 1.0004 1.0006
Latitude (°) 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E Latitude (°) 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E
47 N 1.0006 1.0005 1.0004 1.0005 1.0006 47 N 1.0006 1.0005 1.0004 1.0005 1.0006
46 N 1.0003 1.0002 1.0001 1.0002 1.0003 46 N 1.0003 1.0002 1.0001 1.0002 1.0003
45 N 1.0002 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0002 45 N 1.0002 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0002
44 N 1.0002 1.0001 1.0000 1.0001 1.0002 44 N 1.0002 1.0001 1.0000 1.0001 1.0002
43 N 1.0003 1.0002 1.0002 1.0002 1.0003 43 N 1.0003 1.0002 1.0002 1.0002 1.0003
Latitude (°) 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E Latitude (°) 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E
82 N 1.0004 1.0003 1.0003 1.0003 1.0004 82 N 1.0004 1.0003 1.0003 1.0003 1.0004
81 N 1.0001 1.0001 1.0001 1.0001 1.0001 81 N 1.0001 1.0001 1.0001 1.0001 1.0001
80 N 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 80 N 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
79 N 1.0001 1.0001 1.0001 1.0001 1.0001 79 N 1.0001 1.0001 1.0001 1.0001 1.0001
78 N 1.0003 1.0003 1.0003 1.0003 1.0003 78 N 1.0003 1.0003 1.0003 1.0003 1.0003
Longitude (°) Longitude (°)
Longitude (°) Longitude (°)
Scale Distortion Along Meridians (h) Scale Distortion Along Parallels (k)Longitude (°) Longitude (°)
STEREOGRAPHIC
Latitude (°) 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E
2 N 1.0012 1.0008 1.0006 1.0008 1.0012
1 N 1.0008 1.0003 1.0002 1.0003 1.0008
0 1.0006 1.0002 1 1.0002 1.0006
1 S 1.0008 1.0003 1.0002 1.0003 1.0008
2 S 1.0012 1.0008 1.0006 1.0008 1.0012
Latitude (°) 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E
47 N 1.0011 1.0009 1.0008 1.0009 1.0011
46 N 1.0006 1.0003 1.0003 1.0003 1.0006
45 N 1.0003 1.0001 1 1.0001 1.0003
44 N 1.0003 1.0001 1.0000 1.0001 1.0003
43 N 1.0007 1.0005 1.0004 1.0005 1.0007
Latitude (°) 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E
82 N 1.0007 1.0007 1.0007 1.0007 1.0007
81 N 1.0002 1.0002 1.0002 1.0002 1.0002
80 N 1.0000 1.0000 1 1.0000 1.0000
79 N 1.0001 1.0001 1.0001 1.0001 1.0001
78 N 1.0006 1.0005 1.0005 1.0005 1.0006
Longitude (°)
Longitude (°)
Area scale factor (s)Longitude (°)
STEREOGRAPHICTISSOT’S INDICATRICES
Tangent Point: (φ, λ)= (0°, 0°)
STEREOGRAPHICTISSOT’S INDICATRICES
Tangent Point: (φ, λ)= (45° N, 0°)
STEREOGRAPHICTISSOT’S INDICATRICES
Tangent Point: (φ, λ)= (80° N, 0°)
STEREOGRAPHICTISSOT’S INDICATRIX
Latitude (°) 5 W 4 W 3 W 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E 3 E 4 E 5 E
5N 1.003813 1.003126 1.002592 1.002211 1.001982 1.001906 1.001982 1.002211 1.002592 1.0031257 1.003813
4 N 1.003126 1.002439 1.001905 1.001524 1.001296 1.001219 1.001296 1.001524 1.001905 1.0024389 1.003126
3 N 1.002592 1.001905 1.001371 1.00099 1.000762 1.000686 1.000762 1.00099 1.001371 1.0019051 1.002592
2 N 1.002211 1.001524 1.00099 1.000609 1.000381 1.000305 1.000381 1.000609 1.00099 1.0015241 1.002211
1 N 1.001982 1.001296 1.000762 1.000381 1.000152 1.000076 1.000152 1.000381 1.000762 1.0012956 1.001982
0 1.001906 1.001219 1.000686 1.000305 1.000076 1 1.000076 1.000305 1.000686 1.0012195 1.001906
1 S 1.001982 1.001296 1.000762 1.000381 1.000152 1.000076 1.000152 1.000381 1.000762 1.0012956 1.001982
2 S 1.002211 1.001524 1.00099 1.000609 1.000381 1.000305 1.000381 1.000609 1.00099 1.0015241 1.002211
3 S 1.002592 1.001905 1.001371 1.00099 1.000762 1.000686 1.000762 1.00099 1.001371 1.0019051 1.002592
4S 1.003126 1.002439 1.001905 1.001524 1.001296 1.001219 1.001296 1.001524 1.001905 1.0024389 1.003126
5 S 1.003813 1.003126 1.002592 1.002211 1.001982 1.001906 1.001982 1.002211 1.002592 1.0031257 1.003813
Latitude (°) 5 W 4 W 3 W 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E 3 E 4 E 5 E
50 N 1.003076 1.00276 1.002515 1.00234 1.002235 1.0022 1.002235 1.00234 1.002515 1.0027604 1.003076
49 N 1.002346 1.002025 1.001775 1.001597 1.00149 1.001454 1.00149 1.001597 1.001775 1.0020251 1.002346
48 N 1.00177 1.001443 1.001189 1.001007 1.000898 1.000861 1.000898 1.001007 1.001189 1.0014431 1.00177
47 N 1.001347 1.001014 1.000755 1.00057 1.000459 1.000422 1.000459 1.00057 1.000755 1.001014 1.001347
46 N 1.001077 1.000738 1.000474 1.000285 1.000172 1.000135 1.000172 1.000285 1.000474 1.0007375 1.001077
45 N 1.000959 1.000613 1.000345 1.000153 1.000038 1 1.000038 1.000153 1.000345 1.0006135 1.000959
44 N 1.000993 1.000642 1.000369 1.000174 1.000057 1.000018 1.000057 1.000174 1.000369 1.0006417 1.000993
43 N 1.001179 1.000822 1.000545 1.000346 1.000227 1.000188 1.000227 1.000346 1.000545 1.0008223 1.001179
42 N 1.001518 1.001155 1.000873 1.000671 1.00055 1.00051 1.00055 1.000671 1.000873 1.0011553 1.001518
41 N 1.00201 1.001641 1.001354 1.001149 1.001026 1.000985 1.001026 1.001149 1.001354 1.0016409 1.00201
40 N 1.002654 1.002279 1.001988 1.001779 1.001654 1.001613 1.001654 1.001779 1.001988 1.0022793 1.002654
Latitude (°) 5 W 4 W 3 W 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E 3 E 4 E 5 E
85N 1.002037 1.002026 1.002018 1.002012 1.002009 1.002007 1.002009 1.002012 1.002018 1.0020262 1.002037
84 N 1.001335 1.001323 1.001313 1.001306 1.001302 1.0013 1.001302 1.001306 1.001313 1.0013227 1.001335
83 N 1.000787 1.000772 1.000761 1.000753 1.000748 1.000746 1.000748 1.000753 1.000761 1.0007724 1.000787
82 N 1.000392 1.000375 1.000362 1.000352 1.000347 1.000345 1.000347 1.000352 1.000362 1.0003749 1.000392
81 N 1.000149 1.00013 1.000115 1.000105 1.000098 1.000096 1.000098 1.000105 1.000115 1.0001298 1.000149
80 N 1.000058 1.000037 1.000021 1.000009 1.000002 1 1.000002 1.000009 1.000021 1.0000372 1.000058
79 N 1.00012 1.000097 1.000079 1.000066 1.000059 1.000056 1.000059 1.000066 1.000079 1.0000969 1.00012
78 N 1.000334 1.000309 1.000289 1.000275 1.000267 1.000264 1.000267 1.000275 1.000289 1.0003089 1.000334
77 N 1.000701 1.000673 1.000652 1.000637 1.000628 1.000625 1.000628 1.000637 1.000652 1.0006734 1.000701
76 N 1.00122 1.001191 1.001168 1.001152 1.001142 1.001139 1.001142 1.001152 1.001168 1.0011906 1.00122
75 N 1.001892 1.001861 1.001836 1.001819 1.001809 1.001805 1.001809 1.001819 1.001836 1.0018607 1.001892
Longitude (°)
Longitude (°)
Semi major - axis (a)Longitude (°)
STEREOGRAPHICTISSOT’S INDICATRICES
Latitude (°) 5 W 4 W 3 W 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E 3 E 4 E 5 E
5N 1.003813 1.003126 1.002592 1.002211 1.001982 1.001906 1.001982 1.002211 1.002592 1.003126 1.003813
4 N 1.003126 1.002439 1.001905 1.001524 1.001296 1.001219 1.001296 1.001524 1.001905 1.002439 1.003126
3 N 1.002592 1.001905 1.001371 1.00099 1.000762 1.000686 1.000762 1.00099 1.001371 1.001905 1.002592
2 N 1.002211 1.001524 1.00099 1.000609 1.000381 1.000305 1.000381 1.000609 1.00099 1.001524 1.002211
1 N 1.001982 1.001296 1.000762 1.000381 1.000152 1.000076 1.000152 1.000381 1.000762 1.001296 1.001982
0 1.001906 1.001219 1.000686 1.000305 1.000076 1 1.000076 1.000305 1.000686 1.001219 1.001906
1 S 1.001982 1.001296 1.000762 1.000381 1.000152 1.000076 1.000152 1.000381 1.000762 1.001296 1.001982
2 S 1.002211 1.001524 1.00099 1.000609 1.000381 1.000305 1.000381 1.000609 1.00099 1.001524 1.002211
3 S 1.002592 1.001905 1.001371 1.00099 1.000762 1.000686 1.000762 1.00099 1.001371 1.001905 1.002592
4S 1.003126 1.002439 1.001905 1.001524 1.001296 1.001219 1.001296 1.001524 1.001905 1.002439 1.003126
5 S 1.003813 1.003126 1.002592 1.002211 1.001982 1.001906 1.001982 1.002211 1.002592 1.003126 1.003813
Latitude (°) 5 W 4 W 3 W 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E 3 E 4 E 5 E
50 N 1.003076 1.00276 1.002515 1.00234 1.002235 1.0022 1.002235 1.00234 1.002515 1.00276 1.003076
49 N 1.002346 1.002025 1.001775 1.001597 1.00149 1.001454 1.00149 1.001597 1.001775 1.002025 1.002346
48 N 1.00177 1.001443 1.001189 1.001007 1.000898 1.000861 1.000898 1.001007 1.001189 1.001443 1.00177
47 N 1.001347 1.001014 1.000755 1.00057 1.000459 1.000422 1.000459 1.00057 1.000755 1.001014 1.001347
46 N 1.001077 1.000738 1.000474 1.000285 1.000172 1.000135 1.000172 1.000285 1.000474 1.000738 1.001077
45 N 1.000959 1.000613 1.000345 1.000153 1.000038 1 1.000038 1.000153 1.000345 1.000613 1.000959
44 N 1.000993 1.000642 1.000369 1.000174 1.000057 1.000018 1.000057 1.000174 1.000369 1.000642 1.000993
43 N 1.001179 1.000822 1.000545 1.000346 1.000227 1.000188 1.000227 1.000346 1.000545 1.000822 1.001179
42 N 1.001518 1.001155 1.000873 1.000671 1.00055 1.00051 1.00055 1.000671 1.000873 1.001155 1.001518
41 N 1.00201 1.001641 1.001354 1.001149 1.001026 1.000985 1.001026 1.001149 1.001354 1.001641 1.00201
40 N 1.002654 1.002279 1.001988 1.001779 1.001654 1.001613 1.001654 1.001779 1.001988 1.002279 1.002654
Latitude (°) 5 W 4 W 3 W 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E 3 E 4 E 5 E
85N 1.002037 1.002026 1.002018 1.002012 1.002009 1.002007 1.002009 1.002012 1.002018 1.002026 1.002037
84 N 1.001335 1.001323 1.001313 1.001306 1.001302 1.0013 1.001302 1.001306 1.001313 1.001323 1.001335
83 N 1.000787 1.000772 1.000761 1.000753 1.000748 1.000746 1.000748 1.000753 1.000761 1.000772 1.000787
82 N 1.000392 1.000375 1.000362 1.000352 1.000347 1.000345 1.000347 1.000352 1.000362 1.000375 1.000392
81 N 1.000149 1.00013 1.000115 1.000105 1.000098 1.000096 1.000098 1.000105 1.000115 1.00013 1.000149
80 N 1.000058 1.000037 1.000021 1.000009 1.000002 1 1.000002 1.000009 1.000021 1.000037 1.000058
79 N 1.00012 1.000097 1.000079 1.000066 1.000059 1.000056 1.000059 1.000066 1.000079 1.000097 1.00012
78 N 1.000334 1.000309 1.000289 1.000275 1.000267 1.000264 1.000267 1.000275 1.000289 1.000309 1.000334
77 N 1.000701 1.000673 1.000652 1.000637 1.000628 1.000625 1.000628 1.000637 1.000652 1.000673 1.000701
76 N 1.00122 1.001191 1.001168 1.001152 1.001142 1.001139 1.001142 1.001152 1.001168 1.001191 1.00122
75 N 1.001892 1.001861 1.001836 1.001819 1.001809 1.001805 1.001809 1.001819 1.001836 1.001861 1.001892
Longitude (°)
Longitude (°)
Longitude (°)
Semi minor - axis (b)
ORTHOGRAPHIC
• Perspective projection from infinite distance
• All meridians and parallels are ellipses, circles, or
straight lines
• Directions from the centre are true
• Radial scale factor decreases as distance increases
from the centre of projection
ORTHOGRAPHIC
Latitude (°) 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E Latitude (°) 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E
2 N 0.9994 0.9994 0.9994 0.9994 0.9994 2 N 0.9994 0.9998 1.0000 0.9998 0.9994
1 N 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 1 N 0.9994 0.9998 1.0000 0.9998 0.9994
0 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0 0.9994 0.9998 1.0000 0.9998 0.9994
1 S 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 1 S 0.9994 0.9998 1.0000 0.9998 0.9994
2 S 0.9994 0.9994 0.9994 0.9994 0.9994 2 S 0.9994 0.9998 1.0000 0.9998 0.9994
Latitude (°) 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E Latitude (°) 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E
47 N 0.9994 0.9994 0.9994 0.9994 0.9994 47 N 0.9997 0.9999 1.0000 0.9999 0.9997
46 N 0.9999 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9999 46 N 0.9997 0.9999 1.0000 0.9999 0.9997
45 N 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 45 N 0.9997 0.9999 1.0000 0.9999 0.9997
44 N 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 44 N 0.9997 0.9999 1.0000 0.9999 0.9997
43 N 0.9994 0.9994 0.9994 0.9994 0.9994 43 N 0.9997 0.9999 1.0000 0.9999 0.9997
Latitude (°) 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E Latitude (°) 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E
82 N 0.9994 0.9994 0.9994 0.9994 0.9994 82 N 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
81 N 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 81 N 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
80 N 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 80 N 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
79 N 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 79 N 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
78 N 0.9994 0.9994 0.9994 0.9994 0.9994 78 N 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
Longitude (°) Longitude (°)
Longitude (°) Longitude (°)
Scale Distortion Along Meridians (h) Scale Distortion Along Parallels (k)Longitude (°) Longitude (°)
ORTHOGRAPHIC
Latitude (°) 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E Latitude (°) 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E
2 N 4' 11.38'' 2' 37.11'' 2' 5.69'' 2' 37.11'' 4' 11.38'' 2 N 0.9988 0.9992 0.9994 0.9992 0.9988
1 N 2' 37.11'' 1' 28.4'' 31.42'' 1' 28.4'' 2' 37.11'' 1 N 0.9992 0.9997 0.9998 0.9997 0.9992
0 2' 5.69'' 31.42'' 0 31.42'' 2' 5.69'' 0 0.9994 0.9998 1.0000 0.9998 0.9994
1 S 2' 37.11'' 1' 28.4'' 31.42'' 1' 28.4'' 2' 37.11'' 1 S 0.9992 0.9997 0.9998 0.9997 0.9992
2 S 4' 11.38'' 2' 37.11'' 2' 5.69'' 2' 37.11'' 4' 11.38'' 2 S 0.9988 0.9992 0.9994 0.9992 0.9988
Latitude (°) 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E Latitude (°) 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E
47 N 3' 6.33'' 2' 20.85'' 2' 5.69'' 2' 20.85'' 3' 6.33'' 47 N 0.9991 0.9993 0.9994 0.9993 0.9991
46 N 1' 33.16'' 46.85'' 31.42'' 46.85'' 1' 33.16'' 46 N 0.9995 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9995
45 N 1' 2.84'' 15.71'' 0 15.71'' 1' 2.84'' 45 N 0.9997 0.9999 1 0.9999 0.9997
44 N 1' 35.35'' 47.4'' 31.42'' 47.4'' 1' 35.35'' 44 N 0.9995 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9995
43 N 3' 10.72'' 2' 21.95'' 2' 5.69'' 2' 21.95'' 3' 10.72'' 43 N 0.9991 0.9993 0.9994 0.9993 0.9991
Latitude (°) 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E Latitude (°) 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E
82 N 2' 8.73'' 2' 6.45'' 2' 5.69'' 2' 6.45'' 2' 8.73'' 82 N 0.9994 0.9994 0.9994 0.9994 0.9994
81 N 34.83'' 32.27'' 31.42'' 32.27'' 34.83'' 81 N 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998
80 N 3.79'' .95'' 0 .95'' 3.79'' 80 N 1.0000 1.0000 1 1.0000 1.0000
79 N 35.58'' 32.46'' 31.42'' 32.46'' 35.58'' 79 N 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998
78 N 2' 10.23'' 2' 6.83'' 2' 5.69'' 2' 6.83'' 2' 10.23'' 78 N 0.9994 0.9994 0.9994 0.9994 0.9994
Longitude (°) Longitude (°)
Longitude (°) Longitude (°)
Longitude (°) Longitude (°)
Angular Deformation (w) Area scale factor (s)
ORTHOGRAPHICTISSOT’S INDICATRICES
If |a – b| < 0.001 ellipse
is shown in green colour
otherwise it is red
ORTHOGRAPHICTISSOT’S INDICATRICES
If |a – b| < 0.001 ellipse
is shown in green colour
otherwise it is red
ORTHOGRAPHICTISSOT’S INDICATRICES
If |a – b| < 0.001 ellipse
is shown in green colour
otherwise it is red
ORTHOGRAPHICTISSOT’S INDICATRICES
Latitude (°) 5 W 4 W 3 W 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E 3 E 4 E 5 E
5N 1.0038 1.0024 1.0014 1.0006 1.0002 1.0000 1.0002 1.0006 1.0014 1.0024 1.0038
4 N 1.0038 1.0024 1.0014 1.0006 1.0002 1.0000 1.0002 1.0006 1.0014 1.0024 1.0038
3 N 1.0038 1.0024 1.0014 1.0006 1.0002 1.0000 1.0002 1.0006 1.0014 1.0024 1.0038
2 N 1.0038 1.0025 1.0014 1.0006 1.0002 1.0000 1.0002 1.0006 1.0014 1.0025 1.0038
1 N 1.0038 1.0025 1.0014 1.0006 1.0002 1.0000 1.0002 1.0006 1.0014 1.0025 1.0038
0 1.0038 1.0025 1.0014 1.0006 1.0002 1.0000 1.0002 1.0006 1.0014 1.0025 1.0038
1 S 1.0038 1.0025 1.0014 1.0006 1.0002 1.0000 1.0002 1.0006 1.0014 1.0025 1.0038
2 S 1.0038 1.0025 1.0014 1.0006 1.0002 1.0000 1.0002 1.0006 1.0014 1.0025 1.0038
3 S 1.0038 1.0024 1.0014 1.0006 1.0002 1.0000 1.0002 1.0006 1.0014 1.0024 1.0038
4S 1.0038 1.0024 1.0014 1.0006 1.0002 1.0000 1.0002 1.0006 1.0014 1.0024 1.0038
5 S 1.0038 1.0024 1.0014 1.0006 1.0002 1.0000 1.0002 1.0006 1.0014 1.0024 1.0038
Latitude (°) 5 W 4 W 3 W 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E 3 E 4 E 5 E
50 N 1.0022 1.0014 1.0008 1.0004 1.0001 1.0000 1.0001 1.0004 1.0008 1.0014 1.0022
49 N 1.0022 1.0014 1.0008 1.0003 1.0001 1.0000 1.0001 1.0003 1.0008 1.0014 1.0022
48 N 1.0021 1.0013 1.0008 1.0003 1.0001 1.0000 1.0001 1.0003 1.0008 1.0013 1.0021
47 N 1.0020 1.0013 1.0007 1.0003 1.0001 1.0000 1.0001 1.0003 1.0007 1.0013 1.0020
46 N 1.0020 1.0013 1.0007 1.0003 1.0001 1.0000 1.0001 1.0003 1.0007 1.0013 1.0020
45 N 1.0019 1.0012 1.0007 1.0003 1.0001 1.0000 1.0001 1.0003 1.0007 1.0012 1.0019
44 N 1.0020 1.0013 1.0007 1.0003 1.0001 1.0000 1.0001 1.0003 1.0007 1.0013 1.0020
43 N 1.0020 1.0013 1.0007 1.0003 1.0001 1.0000 1.0001 1.0003 1.0007 1.0013 1.0020
42 N 1.0021 1.0014 1.0008 1.0003 1.0001 1.0000 1.0001 1.0003 1.0008 1.0014 1.0021
41 N 1.0022 1.0014 1.0008 1.0003 1.0001 1.0000 1.0001 1.0003 1.0008 1.0014 1.0022
40 N 1.0022 1.0014 1.0008 1.0004 1.0001 1.0000 1.0001 1.0004 1.0008 1.0014 1.0022
Latitude (°) 5 W 4 W 3 W 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E 3 E 4 E 5 E
85N 1.0038 1.0024 1.0014 1.0006 1.0002 1.0000 1.0002 1.0006 1.0014 1.0024 1.0038
84 N 1.0038 1.0024 1.0014 1.0006 1.0002 1.0000 1.0002 1.0006 1.0014 1.0024 1.0038
83 N 1.0038 1.0024 1.0014 1.0006 1.0002 1.0000 1.0002 1.0006 1.0014 1.0024 1.0038
82 N 1.0037 1.0024 1.0013 1.0006 1.0001 1.0000 1.0001 1.0006 1.0013 1.0024 1.0037
81 N 1.0037 1.0024 1.0013 1.0006 1.0001 1.0000 1.0001 1.0006 1.0013 1.0024 1.0037
80 N 1.0037 1.0024 1.0013 1.0006 1.0001 1.0000 1.0001 1.0006 1.0013 1.0024 1.0037
79 N 1.0037 1.0023 1.0013 1.0006 1.0001 1.0000 1.0001 1.0006 1.0013 1.0023 1.0037
78 N 1.0036 1.0023 1.0013 1.0006 1.0001 1.0000 1.0001 1.0006 1.0013 1.0023 1.0036
77 N 1.0036 1.0023 1.0013 1.0006 1.0001 1.0000 1.0001 1.0006 1.0013 1.0023 1.0036
76 N 1.0036 1.0023 1.0013 1.0006 1.0001 1.0000 1.0001 1.0006 1.0013 1.0023 1.0036
75 N 1.0036 1.0023 1.0013 1.0006 1.0001 1.0000 1.0001 1.0006 1.0013 1.0023 1.0036
Semi major - axis (a)
Longitude (°)
Longitude (°)
Longitude (°)
ORTHOGRAPHICTISSOT’S INDICATRICES
Latitude (°) 5 W 4 W 3 W 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E 3 E 4 E 5 E
5N 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
4 N 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
3 N 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
2 N 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
1 N 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
0 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
1 S 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
2 S 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
3 S 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
4S 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
5 S 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
Latitude (°) 5 W 4 W 3 W 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E 3 E 4 E 5 E
50 N 1.0016 1.0010 1.0006 1.0003 1.0001 1.0000 1.0001 1.0003 1.0006 1.0010 1.0016
49 N 1.0016 1.0011 1.0006 1.0003 1.0001 1.0000 1.0001 1.0003 1.0006 1.0011 1.0016
48 N 1.0017 1.0011 1.0006 1.0003 1.0001 1.0000 1.0001 1.0003 1.0006 1.0011 1.0017
47 N 1.0018 1.0011 1.0006 1.0003 1.0001 1.0000 1.0001 1.0003 1.0006 1.0011 1.0018
46 N 1.0018 1.0012 1.0007 1.0003 1.0001 1.0000 1.0001 1.0003 1.0007 1.0012 1.0018
45 N 1.0019 1.0012 1.0007 1.0003 1.0001 1.0000 1.0001 1.0003 1.0007 1.0012 1.0019
44 N 1.0018 1.0012 1.0007 1.0003 1.0001 1.0000 1.0001 1.0003 1.0007 1.0012 1.0018
43 N 1.0018 1.0011 1.0006 1.0003 1.0001 1.0000 1.0001 1.0003 1.0006 1.0011 1.0018
42 N 1.0017 1.0011 1.0006 1.0003 1.0001 1.0000 1.0001 1.0003 1.0006 1.0011 1.0017
41 N 1.0016 1.0010 1.0006 1.0003 1.0001 1.0000 1.0001 1.0003 1.0006 1.0010 1.0016
40 N 1.0016 1.0010 1.0006 1.0003 1.0001 1.0000 1.0001 1.0003 1.0006 1.0010 1.0016
Latitude (°) 5 W 4 W 3 W 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E 3 E 4 E 5 E
85N 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
84 N 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
83 N 1.0001 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0001
82 N 1.0001 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0001
81 N 1.0001 1.0001 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0001 1.0001
80 N 1.0001 1.0001 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0001 1.0001
79 N 1.0001 1.0001 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0001 1.0001
78 N 1.0002 1.0001 1.0001 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0001 1.0001 1.0002
77 N 1.0002 1.0001 1.0001 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0001 1.0001 1.0002
76 N 1.0002 1.0001 1.0001 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0001 1.0001 1.0002
75 N 1.0003 1.0002 1.0001 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0001 1.0002 1.0003
Longitude (°)
Longitude (°)
Longitude (°)
Semi minor - axis (b)
AZIMUTHAL EQUIDISTANT
• Distances measured from the tangent point are true
• Central meridian is a straight line
• All other meridians and parallels are complex curves
(with exceptions on polar aspect)
• Not a perspective projection
AZIMUTHAL EQUIDISTANT
Modified Azimuthal Equidistant:
•Developed by the US National Geodetic Survey to map
Micronesia
•Calculates distances from the origin along a normal section
rather than the geodesic
•For distances under 800 km no significant errors are introduced
GUAM Projection:
•Simplified form of the oblique aspect of the azimuthal
equidistant projection
MODIFIED AZIMUTHAL EQUIDISTANT
Latitude (°) 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E Latitude (°) 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E
2 N 1.0002 1.0001 1.0000 1.0001 1.0002 2 N 1.0002 1.0002 1.0002 1.0002 1.0002
1 N 1.0002 1.0001 1.0000 1.0001 1.0002 1 N 1.0001 1.0001 1.0001 1.0001 1.0001
0 NaN NaN NaN NaN NaN 0 NaN NaN NaN NaN NaN
1 S 1.0002 1.0001 1.0000 1.0001 1.0002 1 S 1.0001 1.0001 1.0001 1.0001 1.0001
2 S 1.0002 1.0001 1.0000 1.0001 1.0002 2 S 1.0002 1.0002 1.0002 1.0002 1.0002
Latitude (°) 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E Latitude (°) 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E
47 N 1.0001 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0001 47 N 1.0002 1.0002 1.0002 1.0002 1.0002
46 N 1.0001 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0001 46 N 1.0000 1.0001 1.0001 1.0001 1.0000
45 N 1.0001 1.0000 NaN 1.0000 1.0001 45 N 1.0000 1.0000 NaN 1.0000 1.0000
44 N 1.0001 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0001 44 N 1.0001 1.0001 1.0001 1.0001 1.0001
43 N 1.0001 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0001 43 N 1.0002 1.0002 1.0002 1.0002 1.0002
Latitude (°) 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E Latitude (°) 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E
82 N 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 82 N 1.0002 1.0002 1.0002 1.0002 1.0002
81 N 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 81 N 1.0001 1.0001 1.0001 1.0001 1.0001
80 N 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 80 N 1.0000 1.0000 4.3191 1.0000 1.0000
79 N 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 79 N 1.0001 1.0001 1.0001 1.0001 1.0001
78 N 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 78 N 1.0002 1.0002 1.0002 1.0002 1.0002
Longitude (°) Longitude (°)
Longitude (°) Longitude (°)
Scale Distortion Along Meridians (h) Scale Distortion Along Parallels (k)Longitude (°) Longitude (°)
MODIFIED AZIMUTHAL EQUIDISTANT
Latitude (°) 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E Latitude (°) 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E
2 N 1' 23.77'' 52.36'' 41.89'' 52.36'' 1' 23.77'' 2 N 1.0004 1.0003 1.0002 1.0003 1.0004
1 N 52.36'' 20.94'' 10.47'' 20.94'' 52.36'' 1 N 1.0003 1.0001 1.0001 1.0001 1.0003
0 NaN NaN NaN NaN NaN 0 NaN NaN NaN NaN NaN
1 S 52.36'' 20.94'' 10.47'' 20.94'' 52.36'' 1 S 1.0003 1.0001 1.0001 1.0001 1.0003
2 S 1' 23.77'' 52.36'' 41.88'' 52.36'' 1' 23.77'' 2 S 1.0004 1.0003 1.0002 1.0003 1.0004
Latitude (°) 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E Latitude (°) 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E
47 N 1' 2.10'' 46.95'' 41.89'' 46.95'' 1' 2.10'' 47 N 1.0003 1.0002 1.0002 1.0002 1.0003
46 N 31.05'' 15.62'' 10.47'' 15.62'' 31.05'' 46 N 1.0002 1.0001 1.0001 1.0001 1.0002
45 N 20.94'' 5.24'' NaN 5.24'' 20.94'' 45 N 1.0001 1.0000 NaN 1.0000 1.0001
44 N 31.78'' 15.80'' 10.47'' 15.80'' 31.78'' 44 N 1.0002 1.0001 1.0001 1.0001 1.0002
43 N 1' 3.55'' 47.30'' 41.88'' 47.30'' 1' 3.55'' 43 N 1.0003 1.0002 1.0002 1.0002 1.0003
Latitude (°) 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E Latitude (°) 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E
82 N 42.90'' 42.14'' 41.89'' 42.14'' 42.90'' 82 N 1.0002 1.0002 1.0002 1.0002 1.0002
81 N 11.61'' 10.76'' 10.47'' 10.76'' 11.61'' 81 N 1.0001 1.0001 1.0001 1.0001 1.0001
80 N 1.26'' 0.32'' NaN 0.32'' 1.26'' 80 N 1.0000 1.0000 NaN 1.0000 1.0000
79 N 11.86'' 10.82'' 10.47'' 10.82'' 11.86'' 79 N 1.0001 1.0001 1.0001 1.0001 1.0001
78 N 43.40'' 42.27'' 41.89'' 42.27'' 43.40'' 78 N 1.0002 1.0002 1.0002 1.0002 1.0002
Longitude (°) Longitude (°)
Longitude (°) Longitude (°)
Angular Deformation (w) Area scale factor (s)Longitude (°) Longitude (°)
MODIFIED AZIMUTHAL EQUIDISTANTTISSOT’S INDICATRICES
If |a – b| < 0.001 ellipse
is shown in green colour
otherwise it is red
MODIFIED AZIMUTHAL EQUIDISTANTTISSOT’S INDICATRICES
If |a – b| < 0.001 ellipse
is shown in green colour
otherwise it is red
MODIFIED AZIMUTHAL EQUIDISTANTTISSOT’S INDICATRICES
If |a – b| < 0.001 ellipse
is shown in green colour
otherwise it is red
MODIFIED AZIMUTHAL EQUIDISTANTTISSOT’S INDICATRICES
Latitude (°) 5 W 4 W 3 W 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E 3 E 4 E 5 E
5N 1.0025 1.0021 1.0017 1.0015 1.0013 1.0013 1.0013 1.0015 1.0017 1.0021 1.0025
4 N 1.0021 1.0016 1.0013 1.0010 1.0009 1.0008 1.0009 1.0010 1.0013 1.0016 1.0021
3 N 1.0017 1.0013 1.0009 1.0007 1.0005 1.0005 1.0005 1.0007 1.0009 1.0013 1.0017
2 N 1.0015 1.0010 1.0007 1.0004 1.0003 1.0002 1.0003 1.0004 1.0007 1.0010 1.0015
1 N 1.0013 1.0009 1.0005 1.0003 1.0001 1.0001 1.0001 1.0003 1.0005 1.0009 1.0013
0 NaN NaN NaN NaN NaN NaN NaN NaN NaN NaN NaN
1 S 1.0013 1.0009 1.0005 1.0003 1.0001 1.0001 1.0001 1.0003 1.0005 1.0009 1.0013
2 S 1.0015 1.0010 1.0007 1.0004 1.0003 1.0002 1.0003 1.0004 1.0007 1.0010 1.0015
3 S 1.0017 1.0013 1.0009 1.0007 1.0005 1.0005 1.0005 1.0007 1.0009 1.0013 1.0017
4S 1.0021 1.0016 1.0013 1.0010 1.0009 1.0008 1.0009 1.0010 1.0013 1.0016 1.0021
5 S 1.0025 1.0021 1.0017 1.0015 1.0013 1.0013 1.0013 1.0015 1.0017 1.0021 1.0025
Latitude (°) 5 W 4 W 3 W 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E 3 E 4 E 5 E
50 N 1.0018 1.0016 1.0015 1.0014 1.0013 1.0013 1.0013 1.0014 1.0015 1.0016 1.0018
49 N 1.0014 1.0012 1.0010 1.0009 1.0008 1.0008 1.0008 1.0009 1.0010 1.0012 1.0014
48 N 1.0011 1.0008 1.0007 1.0006 1.0005 1.0005 1.0005 1.0006 1.0007 1.0008 1.0011
47 N 1.0008 1.0006 1.0004 1.0003 1.0002 1.0002 1.0002 1.0003 1.0004 1.0006 1.0008
46 N 1.0007 1.0004 1.0003 1.0002 1.0001 1.0001 1.0001 1.0002 1.0003 1.0004 1.0007
45 N 1.0006 1.0004 1.0002 1.0001 1.0000 NaN 1.0000 1.0001 1.0002 1.0004 1.0006
44 N 1.0007 1.0005 1.0003 1.0002 1.0001 1.0001 1.0001 1.0002 1.0003 1.0005 1.0007
43 N 1.0009 1.0006 1.0004 1.0003 1.0002 1.0002 1.0002 1.0003 1.0004 1.0006 1.0009
42 N 1.0011 1.0009 1.0007 1.0006 1.0005 1.0005 1.0005 1.0006 1.0007 1.0009 1.0011
41 N 1.0015 1.0012 1.0011 1.0009 1.0008 1.0008 1.0008 1.0009 1.0011 1.0012 1.0015
40 N 1.0020 1.0017 1.0015 1.0014 1.0013 1.0013 1.0013 1.0014 1.0015 1.0017 1.0020
Latitude (°) 5 W 4 W 3 W 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E 3 E 4 E 5 E
85N 1.0013 1.0013 1.0013 1.0013 1.0013 1.0013 1.0013 1.0013 1.0013 1.0013 1.0013
84 N 1.0008 1.0008 1.0008 1.0008 1.0008 1.0008 1.0008 1.0008 1.0008 1.0008 1.0008
83 N 1.0005 1.0005 1.0005 1.0005 1.0005 1.0005 1.0005 1.0005 1.0005 1.0005 1.0005
82 N 1.0002 1.0002 1.0002 1.0002 1.0002 1.0002 1.0002 1.0002 1.0002 1.0002 1.0002
81 N 1.0001 1.0001 1.0001 1.0001 1.0001 1.0001 1.0001 1.0001 1.0001 1.0001 1.0001
80 N 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 4.3191 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
79 N 1.0001 1.0001 1.0001 1.0001 1.0001 1.0001 1.0001 1.0001 1.0001 1.0001 1.0001
78 N 1.0002 1.0002 1.0002 1.0002 1.0002 1.0002 1.0002 1.0002 1.0002 1.0002 1.0002
77 N 1.0005 1.0005 1.0005 1.0005 1.0005 1.0005 1.0005 1.0005 1.0005 1.0005 1.0005
76 N 1.0009 1.0008 1.0008 1.0008 1.0008 1.0008 1.0008 1.0008 1.0008 1.0008 1.0009
75 N 1.0013 1.0013 1.0013 1.0013 1.0013 1.0013 1.0013 1.0013 1.0013 1.0013 1.0013
Semi major - axis (a)
Longitude (°)
Longitude (°)
Longitude (°)
MODIFIED AZIMUTHAL EQUIDISTANTTISSOT’S INDICATRICES
Latitude (°) 5 W 4 W 3 W 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E 3 E 4 E 5 E
5N 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
4 N 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
3 N 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
2 N 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
1 N 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
0 NaN NaN NaN NaN NaN NaN NaN NaN NaN NaN NaN
1 S 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
2 S 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
3 S 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
4S 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
5 S 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
Latitude (°) 5 W 4 W 3 W 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E 3 E 4 E 5 E
50 N 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
49 N 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
48 N 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
47 N 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
46 N 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
45 N 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 NaN 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
44 N 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
43 N 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
42 N 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
41 N 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
40 N 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
Latitude (°) 5 W 4 W 3 W 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E 3 E 4 E 5 E
85N 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
84 N 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
83 N 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
82 N 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
81 N 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
80 N 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
79 N 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
78 N 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
77 N 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
76 N 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
75 N 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
Longitude (°)
Longitude (°)
Longitude (°)
Semi minor - axis (b)
GUAM
Latitude (°) 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E Latitude (°) 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E
2 N 1.0006 1.0002 1.0000 1.0002 1.0006 2 N 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
1 N 1.0006 1.0002 1.0000 1.0002 1.0006 1 N 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
0 1.0006 1.0002 1.0000 1.0002 1.0006 0 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
1 S 1.0006 1.0002 1.0000 1.0002 1.0006 1 S 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
2 S 1.0006 1.0002 1.0000 1.0002 1.0006 2 S 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
Latitude (°) 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E Latitude (°) 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E
47 N 1.0003 1.0001 1.0000 1.0001 1.0003 47 N 1.0003 1.0001 1.0000 1.0001 1.0003
46 N 1.0003 1.0001 1.0000 1.0001 1.0003 46 N 1.0003 1.0001 1.0000 1.0001 1.0003
45 N 1.0003 1.0001 1.0000 1.0001 1.0003 45 N 1.0003 1.0001 1.0000 1.0001 1.0003
44 N 1.0003 1.0001 1.0000 1.0001 1.0003 44 N 1.0003 1.0001 1.0000 1.0001 1.0003
43 N 1.0003 1.0001 1.0000 1.0001 1.0003 43 N 1.0003 1.0001 1.0000 1.0001 1.0003
Latitude (°) 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E Latitude (°) 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E
82 N 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 82 N 1.0006 1.0001 1.0000 1.0001 1.0006
81 N 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 81 N 1.0006 1.0001 1.0000 1.0001 1.0006
80 N 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 80 N 1.0006 1.0001 1.0000 1.0001 1.0006
79 N 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 79 N 1.0006 1.0001 1.0000 1.0001 1.0006
78 N 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 78 N 1.0006 1.0001 1.0000 1.0001 1.0006
Longitude (°) Longitude (°)
Longitude (°) Longitude (°)
Scale Distortion Along Meridians (h) Scale Distortion Along Parallels (k)Longitude (°) Longitude (°)
GUAM
Latitude (°) 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E Latitude (°) 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E
2 N 2' 6.16'' 31.55'' 0 31.55'' 2' 6.16'' 2 N 1.0006 1.0002 1 1.0002 1.0006
1 N 2' 6.39'' 31.61'' 0 31.61'' 2' 6.39'' 1 N 1.0006 1.0002 1 1.0002 1.0006
0 2' 6.47'' 31.63'' 0 31.63'' 2' 6.47'' 0 1.0006 1.0002 1 1.0002 1.0006
1 S 2' 6.39'' 31.61'' 0 31.61'' 2' 6.39'' 1 S 1.0006 1.0002 1 1.0002 1.0006
2 S 2' 6.16'' 31.55'' 0 31.55'' 2' 6.16'' 2 S 1.0006 1.0002 1 1.0002 1.0006
Latitude (°) 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E Latitude (°) 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E
47 N 8.58'' 2.15'' 0 2.15'' 8.58'' 47 N 1.0006 1.0002 1 1.0002 1.0006
46 N 4.19'' 1.05'' 0 1.05'' 4.19'' 46 N 1.0006 1.0002 1 1.0002 1.0006
45 N .0.21'' 0.05'' 0 0.05'' .0.21'' 45 N 1.0006 1.0002 1 1.0002 1.0006
44 N 4.61'' 1.15'' 0 1.15'' 4.61'' 44 N 1.0006 1.0002 1 1.0002 1.0006
43 N 9.01'' 2.25'' 0 2.25'' 9.01'' 43 N 1.0006 1.0002 1 1.0002 1.0006
Latitude (°) 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E Latitude (°) 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E
82 N 2' 0.76'' 30.20'' 0 30.20'' 2' 0.76'' 82 N 1.0006 1.0002 1 1.0002 1.0006
81 N 1' 59.48'' 29.88'' 0 29.88'' 1' 59.48'' 81 N 1.0006 1.0002 1 1.0002 1.0006
80 N 1' 58.05'' 29.52'' 0 29.52'' 1' 58.05'' 80 N 1.0006 1.0002 1 1.0002 1.0006
79 N 1' 56.48'' 29.13'' 0 29.13'' 1' 56.48'' 79 N 1.0006 1.0002 1 1.0002 1.0006
78 N 1' 54.76'' 28.70'' 0 28.70'' 1' 54.76'' 78 N 1.0006 1.0002 1 1.0002 1.0006
Longitude (°) Longitude (°)
Angular Deformation (w) Area scale factor (s)Longitude (°) Longitude (°)
Longitude (°) Longitude (°)
GUAMTISSOT’S INDICATRICES
If |a – b| < 0.001 ellipse
is shown in green colour
otherwise it is red
GUAMTISSOT’S INDICATRICES
If |a – b| < 0.001 ellipse
is shown in green colour
otherwise it is red
GUAMTISSOT’S INDICATRICES
If |a – b| < 0.001 ellipse
is shown in green colour
otherwise it is red
GUAMTISSOT’S INDICATRICES
Latitude (°) 5 W 4 W 3 W 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E 3 E 4 E 5 E
5N 1.0038 1.0024 1.0014 1.0006 1.0002 1.0000 1.0002 1.0006 1.0014 1.0024 1.0038
4 N 1.0038 1.0024 1.0014 1.0006 1.0002 1.0000 1.0002 1.0006 1.0014 1.0024 1.0038
3 N 1.0038 1.0024 1.0014 1.0006 1.0002 1.0000 1.0002 1.0006 1.0014 1.0024 1.0038
2 N 1.0038 1.0025 1.0014 1.0006 1.0002 1.0000 1.0002 1.0006 1.0014 1.0025 1.0038
1 N 1.0038 1.0025 1.0014 1.0006 1.0002 1.0000 1.0002 1.0006 1.0014 1.0025 1.0038
0 1.0038 1.0025 1.0014 1.0006 1.0002 1.0000 1.0002 1.0006 1.0014 1.0025 1.0038
1 S 1.0038 1.0025 1.0014 1.0006 1.0002 1.0000 1.0002 1.0006 1.0014 1.0025 1.0038
2 S 1.0038 1.0025 1.0014 1.0006 1.0002 1.0000 1.0002 1.0006 1.0014 1.0025 1.0038
3 S 1.0038 1.0024 1.0014 1.0006 1.0002 1.0000 1.0002 1.0006 1.0014 1.0024 1.0038
4S 1.0038 1.0024 1.0014 1.0006 1.0002 1.0000 1.0002 1.0006 1.0014 1.0024 1.0038
5 S 1.0038 1.0024 1.0014 1.0006 1.0002 1.0000 1.0002 1.0006 1.0014 1.0024 1.0038
Latitude (°) 5 W 4 W 3 W 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E 3 E 4 E 5 E
50 N 1.0022 1.0014 1.0008 1.0004 1.0001 1.0000 1.0001 1.0004 1.0008 1.0014 1.0022
49 N 1.0022 1.0014 1.0008 1.0003 1.0001 1.0000 1.0001 1.0003 1.0008 1.0014 1.0022
48 N 1.0021 1.0013 1.0008 1.0003 1.0001 1.0000 1.0001 1.0003 1.0008 1.0013 1.0021
47 N 1.0020 1.0013 1.0007 1.0003 1.0001 1.0000 1.0001 1.0003 1.0007 1.0013 1.0020
46 N 1.0020 1.0013 1.0007 1.0003 1.0001 1.0000 1.0001 1.0003 1.0007 1.0013 1.0020
45 N 1.0019 1.0012 1.0007 1.0003 1.0001 1.0000 1.0001 1.0003 1.0007 1.0012 1.0019
44 N 1.0020 1.0013 1.0007 1.0003 1.0001 1.0000 1.0001 1.0003 1.0007 1.0013 1.0020
43 N 1.0020 1.0013 1.0007 1.0003 1.0001 1.0000 1.0001 1.0003 1.0007 1.0013 1.0020
42 N 1.0021 1.0014 1.0008 1.0003 1.0001 1.0000 1.0001 1.0003 1.0008 1.0014 1.0021
41 N 1.0022 1.0014 1.0008 1.0003 1.0001 1.0000 1.0001 1.0003 1.0008 1.0014 1.0022
40 N 1.0022 1.0014 1.0008 1.0004 1.0001 1.0000 1.0001 1.0004 1.0008 1.0014 1.0022
Latitude (°) 5 W 4 W 3 W 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E 3 E 4 E 5 E
85N 1.0038 1.0024 1.0014 1.0006 1.0002 1.0000 1.0002 1.0006 1.0014 1.0024 1.0038
84 N 1.0038 1.0024 1.0014 1.0006 1.0002 1.0000 1.0002 1.0006 1.0014 1.0024 1.0038
83 N 1.0038 1.0024 1.0014 1.0006 1.0002 1.0000 1.0002 1.0006 1.0014 1.0024 1.0038
82 N 1.0037 1.0024 1.0013 1.0006 1.0001 1.0000 1.0001 1.0006 1.0013 1.0024 1.0037
81 N 1.0037 1.0024 1.0013 1.0006 1.0001 1.0000 1.0001 1.0006 1.0013 1.0024 1.0037
80 N 1.0037 1.0024 1.0013 1.0006 1.0001 1.0000 1.0001 1.0006 1.0013 1.0024 1.0037
79 N 1.0037 1.0023 1.0013 1.0006 1.0001 1.0000 1.0001 1.0006 1.0013 1.0023 1.0037
78 N 1.0036 1.0023 1.0013 1.0006 1.0001 1.0000 1.0001 1.0006 1.0013 1.0023 1.0036
77 N 1.0036 1.0023 1.0013 1.0006 1.0001 1.0000 1.0001 1.0006 1.0013 1.0023 1.0036
76 N 1.0036 1.0023 1.0013 1.0006 1.0001 1.0000 1.0001 1.0006 1.0013 1.0023 1.0036
75 N 1.0036 1.0023 1.0013 1.0006 1.0001 1.0000 1.0001 1.0006 1.0013 1.0023 1.0036
Semi major - axis (a)
Longitude (°)
Longitude (°)
Longitude (°)
GUAMTISSOT’S INDICATRICES
Latitude (°) 5 W 4 W 3 W 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E 3 E 4 E 5 E
5N 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
4 N 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
3 N 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
2 N 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
1 N 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
0 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
1 S 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
2 S 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
3 S 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
4S 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
5 S 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
Latitude (°) 5 W 4 W 3 W 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E 3 E 4 E 5 E
50 N 1.0016 1.0010 1.0006 1.0003 1.0001 1.0000 1.0001 1.0003 1.0006 1.0010 1.0016
49 N 1.0016 1.0011 1.0006 1.0003 1.0001 1.0000 1.0001 1.0003 1.0006 1.0011 1.0016
48 N 1.0017 1.0011 1.0006 1.0003 1.0001 1.0000 1.0001 1.0003 1.0006 1.0011 1.0017
47 N 1.0018 1.0011 1.0006 1.0003 1.0001 1.0000 1.0001 1.0003 1.0006 1.0011 1.0018
46 N 1.0018 1.0012 1.0007 1.0003 1.0001 1.0000 1.0001 1.0003 1.0007 1.0012 1.0018
45 N 1.0019 1.0012 1.0007 1.0003 1.0001 1.0000 1.0001 1.0003 1.0007 1.0012 1.0019
44 N 1.0018 1.0012 1.0007 1.0003 1.0001 1.0000 1.0001 1.0003 1.0007 1.0012 1.0018
43 N 1.0018 1.0011 1.0006 1.0003 1.0001 1.0000 1.0001 1.0003 1.0006 1.0011 1.0018
42 N 1.0017 1.0011 1.0006 1.0003 1.0001 1.0000 1.0001 1.0003 1.0006 1.0011 1.0017
41 N 1.0016 1.0010 1.0006 1.0003 1.0001 1.0000 1.0001 1.0003 1.0006 1.0010 1.0016
40 N 1.0016 1.0010 1.0006 1.0003 1.0001 1.0000 1.0001 1.0003 1.0006 1.0010 1.0016
Latitude (°) 5 W 4 W 3 W 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E 3 E 4 E 5 E
85N 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
84 N 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
83 N 1.0001 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0001
82 N 1.0001 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0001
81 N 1.0001 1.0001 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0001 1.0001
80 N 1.0001 1.0001 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0001 1.0001
79 N 1.0001 1.0001 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0001 1.0001
78 N 1.0002 1.0001 1.0001 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0001 1.0001 1.0002
77 N 1.0002 1.0001 1.0001 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0001 1.0001 1.0002
76 N 1.0002 1.0001 1.0001 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0001 1.0001 1.0002
75 N 1.0003 1.0002 1.0001 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0001 1.0002 1.0003
Longitude (°)
Longitude (°)
Longitude (°)
Semi minor - axis (b)
GENERAL PERSPECTIVE PROJECTION
• Orthographic, stereographic and gnomonic are
special forms of vertical perspective
• View of the Earth from space
• Central meridian and a particular parallel are
shown as straight lines
• Other meridians and parallels are arcs of circles or
ellipses (some might be parabolas or hyperbolas)
GENERAL PERSPECTIVE PROJECTION
Latitude (°) 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E Latitude (°) 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E
2 N 0.9991 0.9991 0.9992 0.9991 0.9991 2 N 0.9991 0.9997 0.9999 0.9997 0.9991
1 N 0.9997 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9997 1 N 0.9991 0.9998 1.0000 0.9998 0.9991
0 0.9999 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999 0 0.9992 0.9998 1.0000 0.9998 0.9992
1 S 0.9997 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9997 1 S 0.9991 0.9998 1.0000 0.9998 0.9991
2 S 0.9991 0.9991 0.9992 0.9991 0.9991 2 S 0.9991 0.9997 0.9999 0.9997 0.9991
Latitude (°) 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E Latitude (°) 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E
47 N 0.9991 0.9992 0.9992 0.9992 0.9991 47 N 0.9995 0.9998 0.9999 0.9998 0.9995
46 N 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 46 N 0.9996 0.9999 1.0000 0.9999 0.9996
45 N 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 45 N 0.9996 0.9999 1.0000 0.9999 0.9996
44 N 0.9997 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9997 44 N 0.9996 0.9999 1.0000 0.9999 0.9996
43 N 0.9991 0.9991 0.9992 0.9991 0.9991 43 N 0.9995 0.9998 0.9999 0.9998 0.9995
Latitude (°) 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E Latitude (°) 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E
82 N 0.9992 0.9992 0.9992 0.9992 0.9992 82 N 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999
81 N 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 81 N 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
80 N 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 80 N 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
79 N 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 79 N 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
78 N 0.9991 0.9992 0.9992 0.9992 0.9991 78 N 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999
Scale Distortion Along Meridians (h) Scale Distortion Along Parallels (k)Longitude (°) Longitude (°)
Longitude (°) Longitude (°)
Longitude (°) Longitude (°)
Height of perspective : 50 000 km
GENERAL PERSPECTIVE PROJECTION
Latitude (°) 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E Latitude (°) 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E
2 N 5`15.30`` 3`16.97`` 2`37.54`` 3`16.97`` 5`15.30`` 2 N 0.9982 0.9989 0.9991 0.9989 0.9982
1 N 3`17.14`` 1`18.81`` 39.38`` 1`18.81`` 3`17.14`` 1 N 0.9989 0.9995 0.9998 0.9995 0.9989
0 2`37.76`` 39.43`` 0 39.43`` 2`37.76`` 0 0.9991 0.9998 1.0000 0.9998 0.9991
1 S 3`17.14`` 1`18.81`` 39.38`` 1`18.81`` 3`17.14`` 1 S 0.9989 0.9995 0.9998 0.9995 0.9989
2 S 5`15.30`` 3`16.97`` 2`37.54`` 3`16.97`` 5`15.30`` 2 S 0.9982 0.9989 0.9991 0.9989 0.9982
Latitude (°) 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E Latitude (°) 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E
47 N 3`53.85`` 2`56.74`` 2`37.71`` 2`56.74`` 3`53.85`` 47 N 0.9986 0.9990 0.9991 0.9990 0.9986
46 N 1`56.94`` 58.80`` 39.42`` 58.80`` 1`56.94`` 46 N 0.9993 0.9997 0.9998 0.9997 0.9993
45 N 1`18.89`` 19.725`` 0 19.725`` 1`18.89`` 45 N 0.9995 0.9999 1.0000 0.9999 0.9995
44 N 1`59.39`` 59.49`` 39.42`` 59.49`` 1`59.39`` 44 N 0.9993 0.9997 0.9998 0.9997 0.9993
43 N 3`59.34`` 2`58.11`` 2`37.70`` 2`58.11`` 3`59.34`` 43 N 0.9986 0.9990 0.9991 0.9990 0.9986
Latitude (°) 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E Latitude (°) 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E
82 N 2`41.67`` 2`38.81`` 2`37.86 2`38.81`` 2`41.67`` 82 N 0.9991 0.9991 0.9991 0.9991 0.9991
81 N 43.75`` 40.53`` 39.46`` 40.53`` 43.75`` 81 N 0.9997 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9997
80 N 4.76`` 1.19`` 0 1.19`` 4.76`` 80 N 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
79 N 44.69`` 40.76`` 39.46`` 40.76`` 44.69`` 79 N 0.9997 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9997
78 N 2`43.55`` 2`39.28`` 2`37.85`` 2`39.28`` 2`43.55`` 78 N 0.9990 0.9991 0.9991 0.9991 0.9990
Longitude (°) Longitude (°)
Angular Deformation (w) Area scale factor (s)Longitude (°) Longitude (°)
Longitude (°) Longitude (°)
Height of perspective : 50 000 km
GENERAL PERSPECTIVE PROJECTIONTISSOT’S INDICATRICES
Tangent Point: (φ, λ)= (0°, 0°) Height of perspective : 50 000 km
If |a – b| < 0.001 ellipse
is shown in green colour
otherwise it is red
GENERAL PERSPECTIVE PROJECTIONTISSOT’S INDICATRICES
Tangent Point: (φ, λ)= (45° N, 0°) Height of perspective : 50 000 km
If |a – b| < 0.001 ellipse
is shown in green colour
otherwise it is red
GENERAL PERSPECTIVE PROJECTIONTISSOT’S INDICATRICES
Tangent Point: (φ, λ)= (80° N, 0°) Height of perspective : 50 000 km
If |a – b| < 0.001 ellipse
is shown in green colour
otherwise it is red
GENERAL PERSPECTIVE PROJECTIONTISSOT’S INDICATRICES
Latitude (°) 5 W 4 W 3 W 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E 3 E 4 E 5 E
5N 0.9990 0.9992 0.9993 0.9994 0.9995 0.9995 0.9995 0.9994 0.9993 0.9992 0.9990
4 N 0.9992 0.9994 0.9995 0.9996 0.9997 0.9997 0.9997 0.9996 0.9995 0.9994 0.9992
3 N 0.9993 0.9995 0.9997 0.9997 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9997 0.9997 0.9995 0.9993
2 N 0.9994 0.9996 0.9997 0.9998 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9998 0.9997 0.9996 0.9994
1 N 0.9995 0.9997 0.9998 0.9999 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999 0.9998 0.9997 0.9995
0 0.9995 0.9997 0.9998 0.9999 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999 0.9998 0.9997 0.9995
1 S 0.9995 0.9997 0.9998 0.9999 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999 0.9998 0.9997 0.9995
2 S 0.9994 0.9996 0.9997 0.9998 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9998 0.9997 0.9996 0.9994
3 S 0.9993 0.9995 0.9997 0.9997 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9997 0.9997 0.9995 0.9993
4S 0.9992 0.9994 0.9995 0.9996 0.9997 0.9997 0.9997 0.9996 0.9995 0.9994 0.9992
5 S 0.9990 0.9992 0.9993 0.9994 0.9995 0.9995 0.9995 0.9994 0.9993 0.9992 0.9990
Latitude (°) 5 W 4 W 3 W 2 W 1 W 0.0000 1 E 2 E 3 E 4 E 5 E
50 N 0.9993 0.9994 0.9994 0.9995 0.9995 0.9995 0.9995 0.9995 0.9994 0.9994 0.9993
49 N 0.9995 0.9995 0.9996 0.9997 0.9997 0.9997 0.9997 0.9997 0.9996 0.9995 0.9995
48 N 0.9996 0.9997 0.9997 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9997 0.9997 0.9996
47 N 0.9997 0.9998 0.9998 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9998 0.9998 0.9997
46 N 0.9997 0.9998 0.9999 0.9999 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999 0.9999 0.9998 0.9997
45 N 0.9998 0.9998 0.9999 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999 0.9998 0.9998
44 N 0.9997 0.9998 0.9999 0.9999 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999 0.9999 0.9998 0.9997
43 N 0.9997 0.9998 0.9998 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9998 0.9998 0.9997
42 N 0.9996 0.9997 0.9997 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9997 0.9997 0.9996
41 N 0.9994 0.9995 0.9996 0.9996 0.9997 0.9997 0.9997 0.9996 0.9996 0.9995 0.9994
40 N 0.9993 0.9993 0.9994 0.9995 0.9995 0.9995 0.9995 0.9995 0.9994 0.9993 0.9993
Latitude (°) 5 W 4 W 3 W 2 W 1 W 0.0000 1 E 2 E 3 E 4 E 5 E
85N 0.9995 0.9995 0.9995 0.9995 0.9995 0.9995 0.9995 0.9995 0.9995 0.9995 0.9995
84 N 0.9997 0.9997 0.9997 0.9997 0.9997 0.9997 0.9997 0.9997 0.9997 0.9997 0.9997
83 N 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998
82 N 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999
81 N 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
80 N 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
79 N 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
78 N 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999
77 N 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998
76 N 0.9997 0.9997 0.9997 0.9997 0.9997 0.9997 0.9997 0.9997 0.9997 0.9997 0.9997
75 N 0.9995 0.9995 0.9995 0.9995 0.9995 0.9995 0.9995 0.9995 0.9995 0.9995 0.9995
Longitude (°)
Longitude (°)
Semi major - axis (a)Longitude (°)
Height of
perspective :
50 000 km
GENERAL PERSPECTIVE PROJECTIONTISSOT’S INDICATRICES
Latitude (°) 5 W 4 W 3 W 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E 3 E 4 E 5 E
5N 0.989526 0.991406 0.992869 0.993916 0.994544 0.994753 0.994544 0.993916 0.992869 0.991406 0.989526
4 N 0.991402 0.993286 0.994753 0.995801 0.99643 0.99664 0.99643 0.995801 0.994753 0.993286 0.991402
3 N 0.992863 0.99475 0.996219 0.997269 0.997899 0.998109 0.997899 0.997269 0.996219 0.99475 0.992863
2 N 0.993907 0.995796 0.997267 0.998318 0.998949 0.999159 0.998949 0.998318 0.997267 0.995796 0.993907
1 N 0.994534 0.996424 0.997896 0.998948 0.999579 0.99979 0.999579 0.998948 0.997896 0.996424 0.994534
0 0.994743 0.996634 0.998106 0.999158 0.999789 1 0.999789 0.999158 0.998106 0.996634 0.994743
1 S 0.994534 0.996424 0.997896 0.998948 0.999579 0.99979 0.999579 0.998948 0.997896 0.996424 0.994534
2 S 0.993907 0.995796 0.997267 0.998318 0.998949 0.999159 0.998949 0.998318 0.997267 0.995796 0.993907
3 S 0.992863 0.99475 0.996219 0.997269 0.997899 0.998109 0.997899 0.997269 0.996219 0.99475 0.992863
4S 0.991402 0.993286 0.994753 0.995801 0.99643 0.99664 0.99643 0.995801 0.994753 0.993286 0.991402
5 S 0.989526 0.991406 0.992869 0.993916 0.994544 0.994753 0.994544 0.993916 0.992869 0.991406 0.989526
Latitude (°) 5 W 4 W 3 W 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E 3 E 4 E 5 E
50 N 0.992358 0.993217 0.993885 0.994363 0.994649 0.994745 0.994649 0.994363 0.993885 0.993217 0.992358
49 N 0.994197 0.995074 0.995757 0.996245 0.996537 0.996635 0.996537 0.996245 0.995757 0.995074 0.994197
48 N 0.995618 0.996514 0.99721 0.997708 0.998007 0.998106 0.998007 0.997708 0.99721 0.996514 0.995618
47 N 0.996621 0.997534 0.998244 0.998752 0.999057 0.999158 0.999057 0.998752 0.998244 0.997534 0.996621
46 N 0.997205 0.998135 0.998859 0.999376 0.999686 0.99979 0.999686 0.999376 0.998859 0.998135 0.997205
45 N 0.997369 0.998316 0.999052 0.999579 0.999895 1 0.999895 0.999579 0.999052 0.998316 0.997369
44 N 0.997113 0.998076 0.998825 0.999361 0.999682 0.99979 0.999682 0.999361 0.998825 0.998076 0.997113
43 N 0.996438 0.997417 0.998178 0.998723 0.999049 0.999158 0.999049 0.998723 0.998178 0.997417 0.996438
42 N 0.995344 0.996338 0.997111 0.997664 0.997996 0.998107 0.997996 0.997664 0.997111 0.996338 0.995344
41 N 0.993831 0.99484 0.995625 0.996187 0.996523 0.996636 0.996523 0.996187 0.995625 0.99484 0.993831
40 N 0.991902 0.992925 0.993722 0.994291 0.994633 0.994746 0.994633 0.994291 0.993722 0.992925 0.991902
Latitude (°) 5 W 4 W 3 W 2 W 1 W 0 1 E 2 E 3 E 4 E 5 E
85N 0.994659 0.994688 0.99471 0.994726 0.994736 0.994739 0.994736 0.994726 0.99471 0.994688 0.994659
84 N 0.996535 0.99657 0.996596 0.996616 0.996627 0.996631 0.996627 0.996616 0.996596 0.99657 0.996535
83 N 0.997993 0.998033 0.998064 0.998086 0.9981 0.998104 0.9981 0.998086 0.998064 0.998033 0.997993
82 N 0.99903 0.999076 0.999111 0.999137 0.999152 0.999157 0.999152 0.999137 0.999111 0.999076 0.99903
81 N 0.999646 0.999698 0.999738 0.999766 0.999784 0.999789 0.999784 0.999766 0.999738 0.999698 0.999646
80 N 0.999841 0.999898 0.999943 0.999975 0.999994 1 0.999994 0.999975 0.999943 0.999898 0.999841
79 N 0.999615 0.999678 0.999726 0.999761 0.999782 0.999789 0.999782 0.999761 0.999726 0.999678 0.999615
78 N 0.998967 0.999035 0.999089 0.999127 0.99915 0.999157 0.99915 0.999127 0.999089 0.999035 0.998967
77 N 0.997899 0.997973 0.99803 0.998071 0.998096 0.998104 0.998096 0.998071 0.99803 0.997973 0.997899
76 N 0.99641 0.99649 0.996552 0.996596 0.996622 0.996631 0.996622 0.996596 0.996552 0.99649 0.99641
75 N 0.994503 0.994588 0.994654 0.994701 0.99473 0.994739 0.99473 0.994701 0.994654 0.994588 0.994503
Longitude (°)
Longitude (°)
Semi minor - axis (b)Longitude (°)
Height of
perspective :
50 000 km
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