Chapter 3Chapter 3Groups in the OrganizationGroups in the Organization

1. Foundations of Group 1. Foundations of Group BehaviorBehavior

(1) differentiate between (1) differentiate between formal and informal groupsformal and informal groups (2) explain why people join groups(2) explain why people join groups (3) describe how role requirements change in different sit(3) describe how role requirements change in different sit

uationsuations (4) explain the importance of the (4) explain the importance of the Hawthorne Hawthorne studiesstudies (5) describe the importance of the (5) describe the importance of the Asch studiesAsch studies (6) identify the implications of (6) identify the implications of social loafingsocial loafing (7) outline the benefits and disadvantages of (7) outline the benefits and disadvantages of cohesive grcohesive gr

oupsoups (8) explain the effect of diversity on (8) explain the effect of diversity on group performancegroup performance (9) contrast groupthink and groupshift(9) contrast groupthink and groupshift

Madness is the exception in Madness is the exception in individual but the rule in groups.individual but the rule in groups.

—— —— NietzscheNietzsche

1.1 defining and classifying groups1.1 defining and classifying groups

A group is defined as two or A group is defined as two or more individuals, interacting and more individuals, interacting and interdependent, who come interdependent, who come together to achieve particular together to achieve particular objectives.objectives.

Groups can be either formal or informal.Groups can be either formal or informal.

By By formal groupsformal groups, we mean defined by the , we mean defined by the organization’s structure, with designated organization’s structure, with designated work assignments establishing tasks and work assignments establishing tasks and work groups.work groups.

Informal groupsInformal groups are alliances that are are alliances that are neither structured nor organizationally neither structured nor organizationally determined. These groups form naturally as determined. These groups form naturally as responses to the need for social contact.responses to the need for social contact.

Command groupCommand group Task group Task group

Interest groupInterest group Friendship groupFriendship group

Why do people join group?Why do people join group?•SecuritySecurity•StatusStatus•Self- esteemSelf- esteem•AffiliationAffiliation•PowerPower•Goal achievementGoal achievement

1.2 basic group concepts 1.2 basic group concepts

1.2.1 Roles1.2.1 Roles All the world’s a stage, and all the men All the world’s a stage, and all the men

and women merely players.and women merely players. —— —— shakespeareshakespeare We mean a set of expected behavior pWe mean a set of expected behavior p

atterns that are attributes to someone atterns that are attributes to someone occupying a given position in a social occupying a given position in a social unit.unit.

Role identityRole identity （角色认同）（角色认同） Certain attitudes and behaviors consistent with a Certain attitudes and behaviors consistent with a

role.role. Role perceptionRole perception （角色知觉）（角色知觉） An individual’s view of how he or she is supposeAn individual’s view of how he or she is suppose

d to act in a given situation.d to act in a given situation. Role expectationRole expectation （角色期望）（角色期望） How others believe a person should act in s given How others believe a person should act in s given

situation.situation.• Psychological contractPsychological contract

Role conflictRole conflict （角色冲突）（角色冲突） A situation in which an individual is confronted bA situation in which an individual is confronted b

y divergent role expectations. y divergent role expectations.

An experiment: Zimbardo’s Prison ExAn experiment: Zimbardo’s Prison Experimentperiment

1.2.2 Norms1.2.2 Norms There are acceptable standards of There are acceptable standards of

behavior within a group that shared behavior within a group that shared by the group’s members.by the group’s members.

Each group will establish its own set Each group will establish its own set of norms.of norms.

The Hawthorne StudiesThe Hawthorne Studies

1.2.3 1.2.3 Conformity Conformity （从众）（从众） Groups can place strong pressure on indGroups can place strong pressure on ind

ividual members to change their attitudividual members to change their attitudes and behaviors to conform to the groues and behaviors to conform to the group’s standard.p’s standard.

Reference groupsReference groups （参照性群体）（参照性群体） the important groupsthe important groups

The Asch StudiesThe Asch Studies

1.2.4 1.2.4 CohesivenessCohesiveness （凝聚力）（凝聚力） The degree to which members are attracThe degree to which members are attrac

ted to each other and are motivates to stted to each other and are motivates to stay in the groups.ay in the groups.

Performance- related normsPerformance- related norms

Relationship of cohesiveness to produRelationship of cohesiveness to productivityctivity

Exhibit 7-3Exhibit 7-3 ??

1.2.5 Size1.2.5 Size （规模）（规模） Small group——completing taskSmall group——completing task doing something doing something productive with that inputproductive with that input Large group——gaining diverse inputLarge group——gaining diverse input fact- findingfact- finding

Social loafingSocial loafing （社会惰化）（社会惰化） is the tendency for individuals to expenis the tendency for individuals to expen

d less effort when working collectively td less effort when working collectively than when working individually.han when working individually.

Max RingelmannMax Ringelmann Rope- pulling taskRope- pulling task

Increases in group size are inversely relaIncreases in group size are inversely related to individual performance.ted to individual performance.

the dispersion or responsibilitythe dispersion or responsibility （责任分散）（责任分散） There will be a reduction in efficiency wThere will be a reduction in efficiency w

hen individuals think that their contributhen individuals think that their contribution cannot be measured.ion cannot be measured.

Social facilitationSocial facilitation （社会助长）（社会助长）

1.2.6 status 1.2.6 status （地位）（地位） Is a prestige grading, position, or rank wIs a prestige grading, position, or rank w

ithin a group. ithin a group. Anything can have status value if others in

the group see it as status-conferring. Informal status is not necessarily less impo

rtant that the formal variety.

incurincur Status —— NormsStatus —— Norms High-statusHigh-status people also better able to people also better able to

resist conformity pressures than their resist conformity pressures than their lower-status peers. lower-status peers.

It’s also important for group members to It’s also important for group members to believe the status hierarchy is equitable.believe the status hierarchy is equitable.

Status —— equitableStatus —— equitable People expect rewards to be proportion-People expect rewards to be proportion-

ate to costs incurred.ate to costs incurred.

Heterogeneous individual Heterogeneous individual （异质个体）（异质个体）

Heterogeneous groupsHeterogeneous groups （异质群体）（异质群体）

Status —— cultureStatus —— culture

1.2.7 group decision making1.2.7 group decision making

Two heads are better than one.Two heads are better than one. Many decisions in organizations are Many decisions in organizations are

made by groups, teams, or committees.made by groups, teams, or committees.

(1)the individual (1)the individual vsvs the group the group Individual --- plusIndividual --- plus

• speedspeed• clear accountabilityclear accountability• consistent valuesconsistent values

Group --- plusGroup --- plus• more complete information and knowledgemore complete information and knowledge• increased diversity or viewincreased diversity or view• higher quality decisionshigher quality decisions• increased acceptance of a solutionincreased acceptance of a solution

Effectiveness Effectiveness VSVS efficiency efficiency g ag a GroupsGroups

• more alternatives more alternatives • more creativemore creative• more accuratemore accurate• produce higher-quality decisionsproduce higher-quality decisions

(2) groupthink and groupshift(2) groupthink and groupshift GroupthinkGroupthink

Four characteristicsFour characteristics ??

Five variablesFive variables• the group’s cohesivenessthe group’s cohesiveness• its leader’s behaviorits leader’s behavior• its insulation from outsidersits insulation from outsiders• time pressuretime pressure• failure to follow methodical decision-failure to follow methodical decision-

making proceduresmaking procedures

GroupshiftGroupshift （（群体偏移）群体偏移） In some case, the group decisions are mIn some case, the group decisions are m

ore cautious than individual decisions. ore cautious than individual decisions. More often, the shift is toward greater risMore often, the shift is toward greater risk.k.

The group discussion tends to exaggeratThe group discussion tends to exaggerate the initial position of the group.e the initial position of the group.

??• familiarization--bolder and more daringfamiliarization--bolder and more daring• diffuses responsibilitydiffuses responsibility

1.2.8 Group decision- making technique1.2.8 Group decision- making technique Interacting groupsInteracting groups （互动群体）（互动群体） BrainstormingBrainstorming （头脑风暴）（头脑风暴） Nominal group techniqueNominal group technique （名义小组技术）（名义小组技术） Electronic meetingsElectronic meetings （电子会议）（电子会议） Delphi MethodDelphi Method （德尔菲法（德尔菲法 -- 专家调查法）专家调查法）

Implications Implications