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Varsha Gaitonde Department of Genetics

and Plant Breeding

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Seminar throws light on,

introduction

history of green and evergreen

revolution

Constraints and need of changes

in cultivation practices

Second green revolution

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Green revolution

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• Green Revolution refers to a series of research, development, and technology transfer initiatives, occurring between the 1940s and the late 1970s, that increased agriculture production around the world, beginning most markedly in the late 1960s.

• The initiatives, led by Norman Borlaug, the "Father of the Green Revolution" credited with saving over a billion people from starvation, involved the development of high-yielding varieties of cereal grains, expansion of irrigation infrastructure, modernization of management techniques, distribution of hybridized seeds, synthetic fertilizers, and pesticides to farmers.

• The term "Green Revolution" was first used in 1968 by former United States Agency for International Development (USAID) director William Gaud, who noted the spread of the new technologies and said,

• "These and other developments in the field of agriculture contain the makings of a new revolution. It is not a violent Red Revolution like that of the Soviets, nor is it a White Revolution like that of the Shah of Iran. I call it the Green Revolution."

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The agricultural development that began in

Mexico by Norman Borlaug in 1943 (based on

Nazareno Strampelli's studies) had been

judged as a success and the Rockefeller

Foundation sought to spread it to other

nations

The Office of Special Studies in Mexico

became an informal international research

institution in 1959, and in 1963 it formally

became CIMMYT, The International Maize

and Wheat Improvement Center.

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In 1961 India was on the brink of mass famine.

Borlaug was invited to India by the adviser to the

Indian minister of agriculture M. S. Swaminathan.

Despite bureaucratic hurdles imposed by India's

grain monopolies, the Ford Foundation and Indian

government collaborated to import wheat seed

from CIMMYT.

Punjab was selected by the Indian government to

be the first site to try the new crops because of its

reliable water supply and a history of agricultural

success.

India began its own Green Revolution program of

plant breeding, irrigation development, and

financing of agrochemicals.

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India soon adopted IR8 – a semi-dwarf rice variety developed by the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) that could produce more grains of rice per plant when grown with certain fertilizers and irrigation.

In 1968, Indian agronomist S.K. De Datta published his findings that IR8 rice yielded about 5 tons per hectare with no fertilizer, and almost 10 tons per hectare under optimal conditions.

This was 10 times the yield of traditional rice. IR8 was a success throughout Asia, and dubbed the

"Miracle Rice". IR8 was also developed into Semi-dwarf IR36.

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• The novel technological development was the production of novel wheat cultivars.

• Agronomists bred cultivars of maize, wheat, and rice that are generally referred to as HYVs or “high-yielding varieties”. HYVs have higher nitrogen-absorbing potential than other varieties.

• Since cereals that absorbed extra nitrogen would typically lodge, or fall over before harvest, semi-dwarfing genes were bred into their genomes.

• A Japanese dwarf wheat cultivar (Norin 10 wheat), which was sent to Washington, D.C. by Cecil Salmon, was instrumental in developing Green Revolution wheat cultivars.

• IR8, the first widely implemented HYV rice to be developed by IRRI, was created through a cross between an Indonesian variety named “Peta” and a Chinese variety named “Dee-geo-woo-gen.”

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o With advances in molecular genetics, the mutant genes responsible for Arabidopsis thaliana genes (GA 20-oxidase,ga1, ga1-3, wheat reduced-height genes (Rht) and a rice semidwarf gene (sd1) were cloned.

o These were identified as gibberellin biosynthesis genes or cellular signaling component genes.

o Stem growth in the mutant background is significantly reduced leading to the dwarf phenotype.

o Photosynthetic investment in the stem is reduced dramatically as the shorter plants are inherently more stable mechanically.

o Assimilates become redirected to grain production, amplifying in particular the effect of chemical fertilizers on commercial yield.

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• New varieties of wheat and other grains were instrumental to the green revolution.

• The Green Revolution spread technologies that had

already existed before, but had not been widely used outside industrialized nations.

• These technologies included modern irrigation projects, pesticides, synthetic nitrogen fertilizer and improved crop varieties developed through the conventional, science-based methods available at the time.

Technologies

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GRAIN MOUNTAINS AND HUNGRY MILLIONS: THE GROWING PARADOX initiative, in the form of a “grain for green” movement. Such a program could accord priority to: • restoration of hydrological and biodiversity “hot spots,” particularly in mountain ecosystems, • coastal agro-aqua farms (planting of salicornia, mangroves, casuarina, palms, etc. along with coastal agriculture and aquaculture), • water harvesting, watershed development, wasteland reclamation, and anti-desertification measures, • recycling of solid and liquid wastes and composting, and agro-forestry and other sustainable land-use systems in the fields of resource-poor farmers.

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IMPACTS +VE impacts

• Drastic changes in socio-economic,political.

• Improved exports n country entered into Global

market

• Increased production.

• Improved transportation n irregation.

• New varieties n hybrids for diff. agroclimatic n

adverse climatic conditions.

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-ve impacts

• Decreased food quality.

• Desi varietal erosion.

• Land degrdation.

• Health hazardous.

• Decreased forest area.

• Passively contributed for the global warming.

Major aim should be focused on

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1. Genetically modified (GM) seeds to double the per acreage production i.e.technology. 2. Private sector to develop and market the usage of GM foods i.e. efficient marketing of the ideas. 3. Linking of rivers as much as economically possible to bring surplus water of one area to others i.e. linking of the rivers.

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Why………

• Poor investment in irrigation infrastructure • The production has remain stagnant and yield in

wheat • Flat growth in production and yield of rice • Fluctuating production and yield of oil-seeds • No improvement in production and yield of pulses • 14% dip in per capita availability of food grain over

the last 15 years • Agriculture sector faces lack of adequate funding • continuously rising population over the years • Inadequate remuneration to the farmers • lower grains at Govt. godown • Food subsidy is mounting • MSP need to be increased.

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Recent facts

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• Food Security, Food Safety, Food quality and their

linkages with poverty in the millennium to achieve

4% annual growth in the next 5 years is the major

challenge Indian farmers are facing.

• 2010 is the high time to bring reforms in the

primary sector to enforce efficient farm linkages.

• Technology development process of modern

time required by the farming community is

cooperation at local levels, regional

level,national level at lastly at globe level.It is very

important to bring all national, international

opinION.

To keep the food security basket full.

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• Farmers require long term agriculture policy for accurate planning by

adopting modern infrastructure with the support of National Food

Security Mission, Horticulture Mission and low interest financial support for long term

• Introduction of farmer’s pension scheme with the supply of every ton

of food grain to state and central kitty by contributing 25% from his

own share and 75% by state and central governments minimum

• period 15 years.

• Introduction of water and carbon credits to support the farmers in

maintaining soil health and ecological imbalance by introducing short duration forestry like poplars and eucalyptus.

• Massive support system in procurement of food grains with the high quality production cereals like quality protein maize and high protein wheat with extra price on the basis of seperate parameters.

• Problem of extreme weather events

High temperature damages

New pest and diseases

Altered drought patterns

Effects of pollutants

• Constraints of Solution strategies:

1. Varying rainfall distribution

2. Frequency of occurrence and distribution of events of weather may change

3. Dwindling agriculture land and water

4. Demand of lands for livestock feed and bioenergy

5. Economic and environmental costs of inputs

ScopE of problem

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Global impacts on productivity

• Need to prevent environmental degradation of land and water

• Need to increase food production under changing climate

Future Challenges

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• Increase in world population

• Global warming- fluctuations in climate – crop failure

• Limited availability of land, water shortage

Success in producing more food

“More with less”

Smart crops

Resilient crop

variety

Adaptation

Input use

efficiency

Plant

Breeding

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Profile of the desired smart crop variety

• Genetically diverse

• Suited to a range of agro - ecosystems and farming

• Resilient to climate change

• High yield

• Extreme weather conditions

• Efficient input use

• Conservation agriculture: zero tillage

• Multipurpose crop varieties

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Areas for Re-orienting crop improvement

1. Broadened genetic base

2. What should be the objective of breeding?

3. How should crops be bred?

4. Where breeding should be situated in R&D?

5. Who are the main stakeholders in crop improvement?

6. By Whom? Profile of plant breeder

7. Strengthening the National Agri. Res. and Extn. Systems

8. Organic plant breeding.

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• Easy gene discovery, improved technology of

breeding and genetics

• Selection and hybridization (10000 years)

• Narrow genetic base (Russia: 96% winter wheat)

Unlocking the inherent potentials of PGRFA

Solution:

1. Widening source of variations

2. Induced Mutation

Need for:

Understanding molecular basis of key traits

Expanding the phenotyping and genotyping

Molecular understanding of recombination

Enhanced rates of introgression

New breeding strategies for introgression. 25

Priority Activities of the Second green revolution

In situ conservation and management: Surveying, Supporting on-farm

management and assisting farmers in disaster situations.

Ex situ conservation : Collection, sustaining, regenerating and multiplying

Sustainable use: Expanding characterization, evaluation, supporting plant

breeding.

Building sustainable institutional and human capacities: National programmes,

information systems, human capacity and public awareness

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Re-invigorated crop breeding for a changing world

“Business- as-usual” mind set

20th century 21th century

Breeder’s

Re-oriented

Multi disciplinary

Demand-driven Participatory

Yield

Adaptation ?

Quality

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Re-invigorated crop breeding for a changing world

Participatory plant breeding:

“Factoring in the perspective of grower and stakeholders such as vendors,

extensionist, industry and rural cooperatives in crop improvement

endeavor”

Involvement of farmers and end- users in 3 stages:

1. Design stage: Setting broader goals

2. Testing: Variability creation

3. Diffusion: Narrowing down to few

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Novel crop Breeding techniques:

Objective of plant breeding for stress environment is to accumulate genes for

stress tolerance

Naturally present in gene banks where, water deficit, excess heat and salinity

conditions exist

Constraints of breeding for abiotic stress:

1. Complex nature of trait (time, duration, intensity and frequency)-

quantification?

2. Transfer of undesirable genes

3. Reproductive barriers

Biotechnological

interventions 29

1. Molecular Breeding approach:

• Genome sequence of many crops available now

• Next generation sequencing: cheap and quick

• Genome sequence + Genetics : identification of

genes

• Ex: Sorghum: well adopted to stress

• Identification of QTLs

Key biotechnological strategies for improving crops

for changing climate

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2. Genetic Engineering approach:

o Breakthroughs: Identification of signaling pathway, regulatory genes and networks

of complex traits.

o Expression of several genes at required place and time.

o Transcription factors: Rice- Mb cofactor sulferase (ABA biosynthesis)

AP 37- increase grain yield

CBF3/DREB1A- drought tolerance

o RNA Chaperons: Mediate transcription and translation

Increase in yield under multiple stress

Ex: Bacterial cold shock proteins (CSpB)

o Aquaporin: Present in tobacco

• Prevents shoot and root hydraulic failure (Tomato)- increase WUE

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Molecular Breeding: (i) The development of genomic resources

(ii) The development of biparental mapping populations for drought stress tolerance

(iii) The use or association mapping approaches to identify the QTLs or markers

(iv) The validation of the QTLs or markers in a breeding germplasm

(v) The use of an appropriate MB approach such as MABC, MARS or GWS

Genetic Engineering approach (i) The identification of genes encoding signaling proteins, TFs and effector proteins

(ii) The identification of genes regulating stomata opening

(iii) The genetic transformation and development of elite crop genotypes

(iv) The assessment of promising transgenic lines

(v) The deregulation of transgenic lines to enable the release of a superior line.

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Overall approaches in MB and Genetic engineering

Policy changes

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DIFFERENT METODS OF BREEDING Genetic

Engineering Conventional

Breeding

Organic

Breeding

Breeding of

varieties

Conventional

varieties

Organic

varieties

Maintenance under

conventional

conditions

Maintenance under

organic conditions Maintenance

of varieties

Multiplication under

conventional conditions

Multiplication under

organic conditions Multiplicati

on of seed

&

vegetatively

propagated

material Conventional seed &

vegetative propagation

material

Organic seed &

vegetative

propagation material

Prohibited

To be used

GMO

varieties

3. Integrated approach

• Beyond molecular breeding and genetic engineering approach

• Best example: MAIZE research in Africa

1. WEMA: Water efficient MAIZE in Africa

2. DTMA: Drought tolerant MAIZE in Africa

3. IMAS: Improvement of MAIZE for African soils

Germplasm

Advanced breeding tools

Drought tolerant genes

High yielding MAIZE cultivars

Expertise in conventional breeding

Monsanto Pioneer

CIMMYT

AATF: African Agricultural Technology Foundation: seed to farmers and companies 34

20-50% more yield

An integrated approach to develop crops for climate change

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Adapting to climate change

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Areas to touch upon to increase crop productivity

Reducing green house gases emission

Taking the heat

Drying out

Carbonating the atmosphere

Improving photosynthetic efficiency

Approaches to face challenges of climate change:

Role of crop improvement

1. Reducing green house gases emission:

• Decreasing levels of green house gases CO2 , N2O and methane

• Reducing these from grazing animals, soil and plants

• Boost the capture of CO2

N2O emissions:

• Nitrogen applied to soil in form of fertilizer, manure, crop residue

• Reduce nitrate leaching and volatilization of ammonia

Key area of genetic approach:

• Increase NUE to allow lower fertilization application

• Oats require less nitrogen- Among forages

• Increasing efficiency of digestive process (Plant breeding + Animal science)

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Mitigation

strategies

Methane:

• 21-25% of methane emissions from agriculture

• Predominant source is ruminant fermentation

• Quality diet of WSC reduces production of methane

• Increasing the oil content of conventional oats -25% reduction in methane

• High sugar grasses- reduce N excretion

• 9% improvement in water soluble carbohydrates in ryegrass- 39-26% decrease

in N excretion

• Exploitation of legumes for NUE

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2. Taking the heat

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• Decrease in yield due to high temperature

• Lead to longer growing seasons- low altitudes

• Shift in climate cannot be considered to shift cropping systems

Effects:

1. Increase in rate of carboxylation by Rubisco

2. Increase in solubility of O2 and loss of CO2 through photorespiration

3. Mitochondria respiration decreases: C3 and C4- decreased photosynthesis

4. Chloroplast protein: Rubisco activase also decreases

5. Increase in evapotranspiration

Genetic improvement:

1. Gene shuffling to improve thermal stability of Rubisco activase

2. Lowering photorespiratory flux

3. Engineering foreign algal Rubisco

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• Drought is an important factor limit the production

• Almost 30% decrease in water resources by 2050 (IPCC)

• Improving yield under drought is difficult – low heritability

• Many of genes tolerant to drought found to be saline tolerant

Genetic improvement:

1. Ability to survive under water stress

• Higher osmotic potential – closing of stomata- decreases cell dehydration

• Stay green: To maintain crop canopy

• TF found to be increasing yield under drought and salinity stress

Sit-out strategy

3. Drying out

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Underground solution to starving rice plants

• A gene that enables rice plants to produce around 20% more grain

• Increasing uptake of phosphorus, an important, but limited, plant nutrient.

• PSTOL1, which stands for phosphorus starvation tolerance—helps rice

grow a larger, better root system and thereby access more phosphorus.

Sigrid Heue, et al., 2012

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2. Improving Water Use Efficiency:

• Easy to select for –less variable

• Explained based on “diffusion”

• C4- have less intracellular CO2 –Higher diffusion

• C3- need to engineer through photorespiratory bypass

• QTLs have been identified

The ERECTA gene regulates plant transpiration efficiency in Arabidopsis Josette Masle, et al., 2005

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Scope for crop improvement:

• C3 plants: Conserved inverse relation between cat. Activity and specificity

• Kinetic properties of current Rubisco are optimum for today- 2050?

• Replacing Rubisco of low specificity and high cat. activity (C3 to C4 evolution)

• Engineering red algae Rubisco in C3 plants - Shaded Lower canopy

C4 plants - Full sunlight upper canopy

• Balance between Rubisco availability and RubP regeneration

• Accumulation of carbohydrates:

• Need to study the relation b/w carbon and carbohydrates

• Indicative of replete sinks

• Manipulating to use additional carbohydrates: creating reproductive sinks

• Leads to increase in total biomass at maturity

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Achieving maximal Conversion efficiency

1. Engineering Rubisco .

2. RNAi or antisense technology for improving shelf life of fruits n

vegetables.

1. Decreasing photorespiratory loss.

2. Plant architecture modification.

Physiology : When is Green Revolution?

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Partnerships beyond traditional National Agril. Res. and Extn. systems

Private sector: novel biotechnological tools

Public sector: ensured funding to work on untouched crops

Relevant private, public, CGIAR and regional R&D networks.

Safeguarding of PVP laws and patent

Winning partnerships

National capacities for crop improvement

Survey of 81 countries (GIPB): scope of funding, staffing, activities per capita.

10 fold decrease in funding plant breeding activity between 1981-2001

‘A dying Breed” – Current capacity for plant breeding is inadequate (Knight,

2006)

:Training of plant breeders:

• Who? – public or private sector

• Training in traditional and other biological subjects

• Public sector: most graduates are trained

• Private sector: Provision of fellowships

• CGIAR centres: training in developing countries.

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Thank You

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