Factor that lead of ReformationI. THE CAUSE OF THE REFORMATION

A. There had been numerous attempts to reform the Roman Church before the 16th cen-tury, but they had always been squelched by the Inquisition. There were also groups outside the Roman Church, such as the Albigenses and Waldenses. They opposed the Roman Church and their blood flowed like water in martyrdom. Men such as John Wycliffe (1320-1384), John Huss (1360-1415), and Gerolamo Savonarola (1452-1498) spoke out against the papacy, auricular confession, purgatory, pilgrimages, worship of saints, relics, etc. Huss and Savonarola were burned at the stake as heretics. Rome herself made some halfhearted attempts to reform at the Councils of Pisa (1409), Constance (1414-1418) and Basel (1431), but these were not successful. There was a group within the Roman Church calledThe Brethren of the Common Lifethat came into existence around 1350 for the specific purpose of bringing reform. Some famous men who belonged to this group were John of Wessel, Erasmus and Thomas Kempis.B. God appointed the 16th century to be the time of reformation, and had pre-pared the Church in many ways for this reformation. Religious, economic and political factors that had been brewing for centuries set the stage for the Reforma-tion. The papacy was corrupt; monasticism and scholastic theology had declined; mysticism was on the upswing; there was a revival of the Greek and Roman classics; men with a spirit of inquiry and independence were discovering the new world; the printing press had been invented, and the Greek New Testament republished. The Renaissance was also a factor in that it chal-lenged men to use their minds - but the Renaissance was purely secular, not religious. The Renaissance brought humanism, but the Reformation brought true Christianity. These things were all part of Gods plan to bring about the greatest religious revival since the first three centuries of the Church.C. Some men have wrongly called the Protestant Reformation a Protestant revolution because much of the Reformation was political and economic. Men forget that because the Roman Church controlled everything, it was necessary for the Reformation to include political and economic elements. If Protestants were to survive, they had to have political and economic power to hold off Rome. Also, it was common for a prince and his whole province to turn Protestant. Later, even kings and whole countries embraced the Protestant faith. Providence forced the Reformers to participate in politics and economics. While some secular rulers used the Reformation for their own greed, many more threw in their lot with the Reformers from a deep religious conviction of serving the one true God through Christ.For the Reformation was neither a revolution nor a restoration, though including elements of both. It was negative and destructive towards error, positive and constructive towards truth; it was conservative as well as pro-gressive; it built up new institutions in the place of those which it pulled down; and for this reason and to this extent it has succeeded (Schaff).

There are two leading aspects in which the Reformation, viewed as a whole, may be regarded; the one more external and negative, and the other more intrinsic and positive. In the first aspect it was a great revolt against the see of Rome, and against the authority of the church and of churchmen in religious matters, combined with an assertion of the exclusive authority of the Bible, and of the right of all men to examine and interpret it for themselves. In the second and more important and positive aspect, the Reformation was the proclamation and inculcation, upon the alleged authority of Scripture, of certain views in regard to the substance of Christianity or the way of salvation, and in regard to the organization and ordinances of the Christian church (William Cunningham,The Reformers and the Theology of the Reformation).

I. Contributing FactorsAt the beginning of the sixteenth century, Europeans were questioning old values and forms. The masses reacted to priestly authority as never before. Most priests were either immoral, corrupt, or illiterate knowing just enough Latin to celebrate the mass by rote memory. Renaissance humanism influenced most of Europe. The renaissance de-emphasized "universals" placing a greater emphasis on "particulars." The attention paid the individual and his ability to think and reason independently illustrates the emphasis on particulars. Learned men accepted the twin concepts of human ability and intellect.Even as thinkers questioned values and forms, there was an accompanying revival of religious feeling. TheBrethren of the Common Lifeaccomplished this among mainstream Catholics. They stressed mystical experience and subjectivism. Most people had grown weary of empty formalism and sought meaning, along with practical application, in their religious experience.When the reformation began, it touched everything! It even left an indelible mark on culture. Historians insist modern Germany would not be Germany were it not for Martin Luther. The reformation affected political institutions, particularly Calvinism with its emphasis on vocation and the separation of Church and State. The reformation called medieval scholastics to task, thus shaping theology. Reformers made the Bible authoritative rather than tradition or papal fiat. Finally, it affected home life. Luther's family life became a model for all German protestant families.On the one hand, Reformers saw themselves as saviors of Europe and Europe's religion. They removed much of Europe from papal tyranny and brought to it Christ's authority. Where Protestantism predominated, Catholic financial exploitation departed. On the other hand, Catholics believe all infidelity began with the reformation. Catholics portray Luther as a drunken monk and his home life as debauchery.Keep one fact firmly in mind. The reformation did not reform religion. Instead, it reformed institutions. Alexander Campbell correctly wrote:All the famous reformations in history have rather been reformations of creeds and clergy, than of religion. Since the New Testament was finished, it is fairly to be presumed that there cannot be any reformation of religion, properly so called. Though called reformations of religion, they have always left religion where it was. I do not think that King Harry [sic] was a whit more religion when he proclaimed himself head of the church of England, than when writing against Luther on the seven sacraments, as a true son of the church of Rome. It is even questionable whether Luther himself, the elector of Saxony, the Marquis of Brandenburg, the Duke of Lunenburg, the Landgrave of Hesse, and the Prince of Anhalt, were more religious men when the signed the Augsburg Confession of Faith than when they formerly repeated their Ave Maria.Human creeds may be reformed and re-reformed, and be erroneous still, like their authors; but the inspired creeds needs no reformation, being like its author, infallible. The clergy, too, may be reformed from papistical opinions, grimaces, tricks, and dresses, to protestant opinions and ceremonies; protestant clergy may be reformed from protestant to presbyterial metaphysics and forms; and presbyterian clergy may be reformed to independency, and yet the Pope remain in their heart. They are clergy still--and still in need of reformation.

Factor that lead Renaissance in Europe The Renaissance was rendered possible by a combination of number of factors which were as follows:1.Decline of Feudalism.In the first place the decline of feudalism, which was the basis of life during the medieval period, greatly contributed to the rise of Renaissance. The feudalism which began to decline by the close of the thirteenth century in France and Italy virtually disappeared from Western European countries by the 1500 A.D.The one major factor which played a dominant role in the decline of feudalism was the rise of the middle class comprising of traders and businessmen. These middle classes provided the kings necessary money for the maintenance of armies and thereby enabled them to reduce their dependence on the feudal lords.Further, due to development of trade and commerce during this period, there was great increase in prices which greatly benefited the craftsmen, merchants and cultivators. As the feudal lords could not increase their rents they were forced to borrow to maintain themselves. As the feudal lords were not able to repay the debts they were often obliged to sell off their lands. This gave a serious set back to feudalism and manorial life. All this paved the way for the Renaissance.2.Impact of the Crusades.The Crusades or the wars between the Christians and Muslims which were fought between 11th and 14th century and which ultimately resulted in the victory of the Muslims also provided an impetus to Renaissance.As a result of the Crusades the Western scholars came in contact with the East which was more civilized and polished than the Christians. A number of Western scholars went to the universities of Cairo, Kufa and Cardona etc and learnt many new ideas, which they subsequently spread in Europe.3.Decline in the influence of Church:The Church which dominated the medieval society suffered a set back in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. The temporal power of the Church was challenged by a number of strong monarchs. In 1296 A.D. King Philip IV of France got the Pope arrested and made him a prisoner.This gave a serious blow to the power and prestige of the Pope. Even the common people lost faith in Church due to rise of numerous rituals. They preferred to pay greater attention to the present life rather than the life after death. No wonder they did not find the medieval ideals of other worldliness and asceticism satisfactory.4.Wealth and Prosperity:The Crusades provided an impetus to trade and commerce in the 12th and 13th centuries and the trade between eastern and western countries greatly increased. This greatly contributed to the wealth and prosperity of the people in Italy and a wealthy class of traders, bankers and manufacturers emerged. This class tried to display its wealth and bolster its social importance by patronizing artists and scholars.They provided security and protection to the artists and encouraged them to produce outstanding works. With a view to attain refinement in every aspect of their culture, these wealthy classes tried to learn the rules of correct social behavior by reading etiquette books. The opening of the new lands for travel to the Europeans also greatly contributed to the broadening of the outlook and liberalization of ideas.5.Invention of Printing Press and Paper:The discovery of the printing press in 1454 by Gutenberg of Mainz also greatly assisted in the revival of the learning. Soon thereafter a number of printers appeared in Italy. The printing press was introduced in England by Caxton in 1477.The invention of the printing press and availability of the paper in abundance at reasonable price greatly contributed to the popularity of the books and gave a fillip to renaissance. Prof. Edith Sichel highlights the role of the printing in Renaissance thus, "Printing remained the source of irrigation which fertilized the world of intelligence."Without printing press knowledge could not have spread for and wide. Earlier, the books were produced by monastic copyist or printed by presses set up in cloisters and only those books reached the general public which were approved by the Church. Under changed conditions the printing of books passed beyond ecclesiastical control and it became possible disseminate knowledge and opinions which were not acceptable to the , Church.6.Fall of Constantinople:The Fall of Constantinople, in the hands of the Turks in 1453 A.D. provided an indirect impetus to Renaissance. A large number of Greek and Roman scholars who were working in the libraries at Constantinople, fled to different parts of Europe with valuable literature. They began teaching Greek and Latin in various European countries.As passionate admirers of classical writers they searched for lost manuscripts of Greek and Latin literature and discovered many works which had been hitherto ignored and neglected. They collected the writings of classical writers studied and edited them and later on printed their original editions.One prominent scholar who studied works of ancient writers and edited them was Erasmus. He asserted that the priests and theologians had distorted the simple teachings of Jesus. He published a fresh edition of New Testament in Greek to clarify the basic teachings of Christianity. Erasmus was against intolerance and persecution and advocated principles of intelligence, open-mindedness and goodwill towards all men.7.Role of Progressive Rulers and Nobles:Finally, a host of progressive rulers, Popes and nobles also played an important role in the ushering of the renaissance. Rulers like Francis I of France, Henry VIII of England, Charles V of Spain, Christian II of Denmark etc. extended patronage to scholars and men of learning and greatly contributed to the revival of Greeco-Roman classics.Likewise Popes like Nicholas V, and Leo X greatly contributed to renaissance by encouraging study of ancient Greek and Roman classical and patronizing classical art, sculpture, music etc. Apart from the Kings and Popes certain nobles also patronized literary men, artists and scientists and contributed towards renaissance.For example, Medici family of Florence set up an academy in Florence which was devoted to the study and research of Platonic philosophy. This family patronized painters, artists and sculptors like Michelangelo, Leonardo da Vinci and Bertoldo.8.Geographical Voyages:The discovery of mariner's compass lead to large number of people taking long voyages because it was possible for them to know the exact direction in which they were sailing. The people were also able to explore the distant seas. As a result the notions about the shape and size of the world in vogue were challenged.A little later with the discovery of telescope people were able to scan the sky and made a new beginning in the study of astronomy. They came to know about the real position of the earth in the solar system. All this knowledge went against the teachings of Church and no wonder contributed to the weakening of the authority of the ecclesiastical system.

I. Reformation's impact on Europe:

a) TheCatholic Church, theprotestantsand freedom.

What was most at stake in Reformation was freedom. The Catholic Church was freedom's defender, and not merely by defending Europe against the Turks. It was the Church that nurtured the artistic freedom of the Renaissance and the Baroque. It was the Protestants who smashed religious art as idolatry and sensualism. It was the Church that sponsored the literary freedom of the humanists, and the Protestants who condemned it as paganism. It was the Church that affirmed man's free will, and the Protestants who insisted that every man's fate was determinedd before he was born. Most of all it was the Catholic Church that stood opposed to the absolute power of the state.

b) Europe divided.

The Catholic Church had converted most by means of missionaries, as with Hungary, Ireland, England, the Nordic countries, etc.. It was the Church that claimed to be universal, independent, and superior court of appeals to the edicts of kings, while Protestants made religion a department of government to be controlled by princes (in Germany), or the city council (in Geneva), or the monarch (in England and Scandinavia). There is, in fact, a much underappreciated libertarian streak within the Catholic Church. It was sen in Pope Gregory IX's alliance with the republicans and th capitalist city-states of Italy against the emperor Frederick II; it was seen in Reinassance Catholicism, to the scandal of the Protestants; and it was seen in most especially in the conflict between the Church and the Tudor dynasty in England.

c) War between separated brothers.

Since Luther's break with the Church, Protestant contribution to civilization had been the bloodiest peasant uprising in the History of Europe (1524-1526), devastating Germany, while the Pope wanted to fight the turks, thinking later they could reconcile; Calvin executed other protestants like Michael Servetus; and Henry VIII began the angicanism until Queen Elizabeth I made a total protestant country of England, going in war against the most Ortodox Catholic Spain.

II. Changes until today.

a) Church under the state.

The Protestant policy of church under state would make in the XVIII century for Catholics the same, the Church no longer had power over the state, and in the the XX century made it irrelevant for the state.

b) Number of religions.

The reformation would make each time increase the number of religions, and since Luther said that knowledge wasn't necessary, but just the Bible, protestants would become ignorant in matters of their past and make new religions interpreting in any way they want, beleiving in more truths and more Holy Spirits, and reforming old heresies. It has weakened the look of Christianity.God bless.Source(s):I have this book, Triumph: The Power and Glory of the Catholic Church from where most came out. Reformation's impact is in page 257http://www.randomhouse.com/catalog/displ

GENERAL EFFECTS OF THE RENAISSANCEThe Renaissance brought in New Conceptions of Life and the World.--The Renaissance effected in the Christian West an intellectual and moral revolution so profound and so far-reaching in its consequences that it may well be likened to that produced in the ancient world by the incoming of Christianity. The New Learning was indeed a New Gospel. Like Christianity, the Renaissance revealed to men another world, another state of existence; for such was the real significance, to the men of the revival, of the discovery of the civilization of classical antiquity. Through this discovery they learned that this earthly life is worth living for its own sake; that this life and its pleasures need not l)e contemned and sacrificed in order to make sure of eternal life in another world; and that man may think and investigate and satisfy his thirst to know without endangering the welfare of his soul.[The longings and the superstitious fears of men in the age of transition between medieval and modern times is well epitomized in the tradition of Dr. Faustus. " That legend," says Symonds, " tells us what the men upon the eve of the Revival longed for, and what they dreaded, when they turned their minds toward the past. The secret of enjoyment and the source of strength possessed by the ancients allured them; but they believed that they could only recover this lost treasure by the suicide of the soul. So great was the temptation that Faustus paid the price. After imbibing all the knowledge of the age, he sold himself to the devil, in order that his thirst for experience might be quenched, his grasp upon the world be strengthened, and the ennui of his activity be soothed. His first use of his dearly-bought power was to make blind Homer sing to him. Amphion tunes his harp in concert with Mephistopheles. Alexander rises from the dead at his behest, with all his legionaries; and Helen is given to him for a bride. Faustus is therefore a parable of the impotent yearnings of the spirit in the Middle Ages,--its passionate aspiration, its conscience stricken desire, its fettered curiosity amid the cramping limits of impotent knowledge and irrational dogmatisms."--Revival of Learning,p. 53 (ed. 1855).]These discoveries made by the men of the Renaissance gave a vast impulse to the progress of the human race. They inspired humanity with a new spirit, a spirit destined in time to make things new in all realms,--in the realm of religion, of politics, of literature, of art, of science, of invention, of industry. Some of these changes and revolutions we shall briefly indicate in the remaining sections of this chapter. To follow them out more in detail in all the territories of human activity and achievement will be our aim in later chapters, where we propose to trace the course of the historical development through the centuries of the Modern Age,--the great age opened by the Renaissance.It restored the Broken Unity of History.--When Christianity entered the ancient Graeco-Roman world war declared itself at once between the new religion and classical culture, especially between it and Hellenism. The Church, soon triumphant over paganism, rejected the bequest of antiquity. Some of the elements of that heritage were, it is true, appropriated by the men of the mediaeval time and thus came to enrich the new Christian culture; but, as a whole, it was cast aside as pagan, and neglected. Thus was the unity of the historical development broken.Now, through the liberal tendencies and generous enthusiasms of the Renaissance there was effected a reconciliation between Christianity and classical civilization. There took place a fusion of their qualities and elements. The broken unity of history was restored. The cleft between the ancient and the modern world was closed. The severed branch was reunited to the old trunk.The importance for universal history of this restoration of its broken unity, of this recovery by the Modern Age of the long neglected culture of antiquity, can hardly be overestimated; for that culture had in its keeping not only the best the human race had thought and felt in the period of the highest reach of its powers, but also the precious scientific stores accumulated by all the ancient peoples. What the recovery and appropriation of all this meant for the world is suggested by ex-President Woolsey in these words: " The old civilization contained treasures of permanent value which the world could not spare, which the world will never be able or willing to spare. These were taken up into the stream of life, and proved true aids to the progress of a culture which is gathering in one the beauty and truth of all the ages."It reformed Education.--The humanistic revival revolutionized education. During the Middle Ages the Latin language had degenerated for the most part, into a barbarous jargon, while the Greek had been forgotten and the Aristotelian philosophy perverted. As to Plato, he was practically unknown to the mediaeval thinkers. Now humanism restored to the world the pure classical Latin, rediscovered the Greek language, and recovered for civilization the once-rejected heritage of the ancient classics, including the Platonic philosophy, which was to be a quickening and uplifting force in modern thought.The schools and universities did not escape the influences of this humanistic revival. Chairs in both the Greek and Latin languages and literatures were now established, not only in the new universities which arose under the inspiration of the New Learning, but also in the old ones. The scholastic method of instruction, of which we spoke in a preceding chapter, was gradually superseded by this so-called classical system of education, which dominated the schools and universities of the world down to the incoming of the scientific studies of the present day.It aided the Development of the Vernacular Literatures.--The classical revival gave to the world the treasures of two great literatures. And in giving to the scholars of Europe the masterpieces of the ancient authors, it gave to them, besides much fresh material, the most faultless models of literary taste and judgment that the world has ever produced. The influence of these in correcting the extravagances of the mediaeval imagination and in creating correct literary ideals can be distinctly traced in the native literatures of Italy, France, Spain, and England.It is sometimes maintained indeed that the attention given to the ancient classics, and the preferred use by so many authors during the later mediaeval and the earlier modern period of the Latin as a literary language, retarded the normal development of the vernacular literatures of the European peoples. [Some of the very best literary work of the period was done in Latin, as witness theColloquiesby Erasmus and theUtopiaby More.] As to Italy, it is true that the national literature which had started into life with such promise with Dante, Petrarch, and Boccaccio was for almost a century neglected; but in transalpine Europe, apart from Germany, where for a period Latin did almost supplant the vernacular, the revived study of the classics did not produce the disastrous effects observed in Italy. On the contrary, as we have just said, the effect of humanism upon the great literatures of Europe, aside from the exceptions noticed, was to enrich, to chasten, and to refine them.It called into Existence the Sciences of Archaeology and Historical Criticism.--Many sciences were in germ in the Renaissance.' As to the science of archaeology, which possesses such a special interest for the historical student, it may be truly said that it had its birth in the classical revival. We have already noticed the new feeling for the remains of antiquity that stirred in the souls of the men of the Renaissance .The ruins of Rome were naturally the first object of the reverent curiosity and archaeological zeal of the Italian scholars. From the fifteenth century down to the present day the interest in the monuments and relics of past ages and civilization has steadily widened and deepened and has led to remarkable discoveries, not only on classical ground, but also in Hebrew, Assyrian, and Egyptian territories, discoveries which, by carrying the story of the human race back into a past immensely remote, have given an entirely new beginning to history.What is true of the science of archaeology is equally true of the science of historical criticism. We have seen that the spirit which awoke in the Renaissance was a questioning, critical spirit, one very different from the credulous mediaeval spirit, which was ready to accept any picturesque tradition or marvelous tale without inquiry as to its source or credibility. It was this spirit that stirred in Petrarch. We find him comparing and criticizing the classical authors and following only those whom he has reason to believe to be trustworthy.But the true founder of the science of historical criticism was Laurentius Valla (1407-1457). His greatest achievement as a critic was the demonstration, on philological and historical grounds, of the unauthentic character of the celebrated Donation of Constantine. He also called in question the authority of Livy and proved the spurious character of the alleged -correspondence between Seneca and the Apostle Paul.The achievements of Valla ushered in the day of historical criticism. Here began that critical sifting and valuation of our historical sources which has resulted in the discrediting of a thousand myths and legends once regarded as unimpeachable historical material, and in the consequent reconstruction of Oriental, classical, and mediaeval history.It gave an Impulse to Religious Reform.--The humanistic movement, as we have already noticed, when it crossed the Alps assumed among the northern peoples a new character. It was the Hebrew past rather than the Graeco-Roman past which stirred the interest of the scholars of the North. The Bible, which the printing presses were now multiplying in the original Hebrew and Greek as well as in the vernacular languages, became the subject Of enthusiastic study and of fresh interpretation. Consequently what was in the South a restoration of classical literature and art became in the more serious and less sensuous North a revival of primitive Christianity, of the ethical and religious elements of the Hebrew-Christian past. The humanist became the reformer. Reuchlin, Erasmus, and the other humanists of the North were the true precursors of the great religious revolution of the sixteenth century.The Renaissance was significant on the development of Western Europe and the Impact it had was immense. The Renaissance not only influenced the worlds of art, music, and literature, but also the worlds of politics, religion, and society. During the Renaissance, advancements were made in several areas of technology and in thought. The Renaissance was a key in the development of Western Civilization.The Renaissance is a term that was coined in the 19th century to describe a period in which art and literature flourished in Europe, but there were so many significant changes during this time period that the term Renaissance began to mean all the developments during this time period. The time frame of the Renaissance occurs over several centuries. It began in Italy in the 14th century, and in the 15th century, the period flourished. The 16th century brought an end to the Renaissance with the coming of a crisis in Italy which spread throughout the European Continent(Lurier).Between the fall of the Roman Empire and the Renaissance, Europe was in a period of decline. Eventually, Europe, for the most part, had adopted a feudal2.society. There were knights and lords in this period, as well as vassals and serfs. Cities of the great Roman Empire were slums for the most part, and in the country, estates with feudal lords offered protection to local villagers from attack (it is for this that villages developed close to feudal estates). Life was generally hard and not too stable. The Renaissance was a result of this life, almost retaliation more than reaction(Michelet).As stated above, the Renaissance started in Italy, to get technical, it actually started in the town of Florence. A reason why the Renaissance started in Italy perhaps relates to the fact that Italian city-states survived in Italy perhaps relates to the fact that Italian city-states survived the middle ages for various reasons (the were located strategically, and they were important places of trade). Northern Europe did not fair as well as the Italian city-states(Kagan).Although the opposite would be true inThe sixteenth and seventeenth centures,The city-states of Italy survived theCentury and a half between 1300 and 1450Better than the territorial states ofNorthern Europe. This was due to Italy'sStrategic location between East and WestAnd its lucrative Eurasian trade. GreatWealth gave rulers and merchants theAbility to work their will on both societyAnd culture. They became patrons of government,Education, and the arts, always as much forSelf-aggrandizement as out of benevolence, forWhether a patron was a family, a firm, a3.Government, or the church, their endowmentsEnhanced their reputation and power. TheResult of such patronage was a culturalRenaissance in Italian cities unmatchedElsewhere(Kagan,Ozment, and Turner333-334).The advantage of Italian city-states can be linked to trade. Some cities such as Venice traded without interruption through the middle ages. During this time, economic factors made it possible for traders of these cities to learn applications such as banking and book keeping which, in time would spread all over Europe. The Merchants of the city-states also learned such tactics as creating monopolies. Bankers, such as the Medici family became extremely affluent, and modern banking practices come directly from them. In fact, at one point, the Italian bankers became the bankers of choice for all Europe(Kagan).The Wealth of the city-states greatly influenced the Renaissance. In the city-states of Italy there was a major influence in power, and how to attain it. Eventually, for the most part, the Merchants controlled the politics of the city-states, and the wealth grew (as did the size of the city-states). For a period, Florence was ruled by a council of six men (later it was made up of eight men) who were elected. This was not democracy, but at least there4.were elections. Constitutions were held by some city-states, thus, the city-states that held constitutions had a constitutional government. This is a development in politics for the time because Kings and Princes ruled most of Europe(Andrea).Humanism came out of the Italian Renaissance. There are several types of humanism, but the best one of the Renaissance was the one that followed the belief of man being unique; that is to say that everyone is different, and should be treated with dignity. This brought on a growth in education and the arts. Humanism of the Renaissance came mostly from the people who were not of the clergy, and wanted to learn the liberal arts. Writing and poetry became important again, as did art and thought; all of the liberal arts, it was thought, contributed to the achievement of the human race, and its dignity. Humanists studied directly from the original sources. They learned Latin and Greek to do so. In doing this they did not have to rely on what others thought of classical works, which meant that they could come up with their own views on the subjects. The humanists were not only scholars, they were teachers as well; which furthered education in the Italian City States. Some humanist believed the original Latin was5.far better than the vernacular (or language of the area one is native too), while others felt the exact opposite. Humanists were interested in politics and civic life(Perry).During the Renaissance, politics also developed greatly. In fact, one of the greatest political works ever written came from this time period. This work was written by Machiavelli, and he called his work The Prince. This work is still used today in the world of politics. It is a model for ideal leadership of a nation, and gives an insight into the thinking involved to rule successfully(Andrea).In terms of art and culture, the Renaissance was a time when art became more realistic, and nature was looked at as art. Various technological advances made painting better; one such advancement was oil paints. Also, during this time period, linear perspective was developed. Linear perspective gave feeling of proportion to paintings, thereby, offer continuity of subjects in a painting. This is still very important to paintings today (with some exceptions)(Perry).The rest of Europe during this time also was experiencing a rebirth. Most of the changes in Northern6.Europe concerned the building of nations, and religion. This time period saw rulers unifying areas of land into nations. Instead of several different feudal lords, each one controlling only his estates (as some did have more that one), there was now a tendency to unite peoples under one ruler, and thus, a country was born(Lurier).In the North of Europe, the Humanist movement concentrated on problems with the church. The humanists of the North were not interested in imitating the life of antiquity but learning from it. This was especially true of the operations of the early church for the Northern Humanists. "There, scholars and mystics studied the past not to imitate, but to learn. The desire to reform was a profound as the need. But to reform the church and society one had to know their original form(Lurier 274)." A main concern came with the invention of the printing press (which is still an important device today). The printing press started a tradition in Northern Europe based upon printing works in the native tongue of the land (the vernacular). Before the printing press, works were written and copied by scholars in either Latin or Greek; this was the age of the manuscripts. The printing press brought some to write in vernacular and be read by many. A main7.concern was over the translation of the bible into the vernacular. This was an idea of the Protestant reformation. Martin Luther is considered not only to be a reformer (and a founding father of Protestantism), but also a humanist(Perry).All in all, the Renaissance in Southern Europe was brilliant. In Northern Europe, the Renaissance was very introspective; it was about asking and answering questions, of finding the truth from the past.Also, in Europe, the Renaissance became a vehicle for exploration. With the spice trade in full swing, people were looking to find cheaper ways to conduct expeditions to the East. This meant finding an all water route. Some men sailed around the tip of South Africa. Columbus came up with the notion that it was shorter to sail in the opposite direction to get to Asia than to sail around the continent of Africa. He received support for the Queen of Spain, and had stumbled quite accidentally upon a new land. This resulted in the Spanish becoming an Empire. To the North, England also started building an empire, as well as countries such as Portugal. With all the interest in sailing there were also technological advances in sailing,8.navigation, and map making; which furthered the science of sailing(Michelet).Other innovations during the Renaissance came from science. Many people furthered Science, and in this age there were several scientific advancements in this time period. Some of the advancements during the Renaissance came from Leonardo Da' Vinci. Not only was he a great inventor, but he also was an artist, painting such works as the Mona Lisa(Kagan).There was also advancement in the art of warfare in the Renaissance. "Military innovations- primary cannons, new infantry tactics, and the royal standing armies combined to reduce the traditional dominance of the mounted feudal Knights(Andrea 427)." The Cannon proved useful at sea, especially for protection of the vessels from hostile sources. Knights were no longer important, as now there were armies. Kings had larger forces to attack and defend their kingdoms with armies they had(Andrea).The Renaissance was a time of rebirth in terms of civilization in Europe. This stems from advancements in art, literature, science, politics, reforms of the church,9.trade, new military tactics, expansion in to the New World, etc. The Renaissance was the first step in the start of the Modern period in European history. The impact and significance of the Renaissance on Europe is a direct result of all the advancements made during the renaissance. The Renaissance politically and economically set Europe up for a return to being an influencing force in the world. Cities were beginning to boom again, and there was a shift from being an agricultural society, to some places having market capital economies. The return to humanism to thought set up many principals that would be further developed as history progressed. Some of the most significant accomplishments in European history during the Renaissance came in the form of banking practices and politics. The Renaissance and all the changes it brought had a great impact on Europe, and were the only way to cross from the Middle Ages into the Modern era.