Georg Lukacs 1949

8/19/2019 Georg Lukacs 1949

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Georg Lukacs 1949

Dostoevsky

Written: 1949;Translator : Rene Wellek;Source: Marxism and Human Liberation: Essays on

History, Culture and Revolution by Georg Lukacs DellPublishing Co., 1973;Transcribed: Harrison Fluss for ar!is"s.org, Februar#$%%&.

' go "o (ro)e # soul*

+ R-R/ -RW0'0

1

'" is a s"range, bu" of"en re(ea"e2 fa" "ha" "he li"erar#

ebo2ien" of a ne huan "#(e i"h all i"s (roblesoes "o "he i)ili5e2 orl2 fro a #oung na"ion. /hus in

"he eigh"een"h en"ur# Wer"her ae fro eran# an2

(re)aile2 in nglan2 an2 Frane: "hus in "he seon2 half of

"he nine"een"h en"ur# Raskolniko) ae fro far6off,

unknon, alos" legen2ar# Russia "o s(eak for "he hole

i)ili5e2 Wes".

/here is no"hing unusual in "he fa" "ha" a bakar2

oun"r# (ro2ues (oerful orks. /he his"orial sense

2e)elo(e2 in "he nine"een"h en"ur# has aus"oe2 us "o

eno# "he li"era"ure an2 ar" of "he hole globe an2 "he

hole (as". Works of ar" "ha" ha)e influene2 "he en"ire

orl2 origina"e2 in "he reo"es" oun"ries an2 ages: fro



0egro sul("ure "o Chinese oo2u"s, fro "he Kalevala "o

Rabin2rana"h /agore.

-u" "he ases of Wer"her an2 Raskolniko) are )er#

2ifferen". /heir effe" is no" "ouhe2 in "he sligh"es" b# ara)ing for "he e!o"i, 8u22enl# "here a((eare2 fro an

un2er2e)elo(e2 oun"r#, here "he "roubles an2 onfli"s

of on"e(orar# i)ili5a"ion oul2 no" #e" ha)e been full#

unfol2e2, orks "ha" s"a"e2 + iagina"i)el# + all "he

(robles of huan ul"ure a" i"s highes" (oin", s"irre2 u(

ul"ia"e 2e("hs, an2 (resen"e2 a "o"ali"# hi"her"o ne)er

ahie)e2 an2 ne)er sine sur(asse2, ebraing "he

s(iri"ual, oral, an2 (hiloso(hial ues"ions of "ha" age.

/he or2 question us" be un2ersore2 an2 us" be

su((leen"e2 b# "he asser"ion "ha" i" is a (oe"i, rea"i)e

ues"ion an2 no" a ues"ion (u" in (hiloso(hial "ers. For

"his as an2 is "he ission of (oe"r# an2 fi"ion: "o (u"

ues"ions, "o raise (robles in "he for of ne en an2

ne fa"es of en. /he onre"e ansers "ha" na"urall# are

gi)en b# (oe"i orks freuen"l# ha)e + seen fro "his

2is"ane + an arbi"rar# hara"er in bourgeois li"era"ure./he# a# e)en "hro "he a"ual (oe"i (roble in"o

onfusion. oe"he )er# soon sa "his hiself i"h Wer"her.

nl# a fe #ears la"er he a2e Wer"her e!hor" "he rea2er

in a (oe: 8-e a an an2 2on<" follo e.

'bsen ui"e 2elibera"el# onsi2ere2 ues"ioning "he "ask

of "he (oe" an2 2eline2, on (rini(le, an# obliga"ion "o

anser his ues"ions. Chekho) a2e a 2efini"i)e s"a"een"

abou" "his hole a""er hen he 2re a shar( 2is"in"ion be"een 8"he solu"ion of a ues"ion an2 "he orre" (u""ing

of "he ues"ion. nl# "he las" is reuire2 of "he ar"is".

'n nna Karenina an2 !negin no" a single ues"ion is

sol)e2 #e" "hese orks sa"isf# us full# onl# beause all

ues"ions are (u" in "he orre"l#. [1]

https://www.marxists.org/archive/lukacs/works/1949/dostoyevsky.htm#n1




/his insigh" is (ar"iularl# i(or"an" for a u2gen" of

Dos"oe)sk# for an# + e)en os" + of his (oli"ial an2

soial ansers are false, ha)e no"hing "o 2o i"h (resen"6

2a# reali"# or i"h "he s"ri)ings of "he bes" "o2a#. /he# ere

obsole"e, e)en rea"ionar#, hen "he# ere (ronoune2.

"ill, Dos"oe)sk# is a ri"er of orl2 einene. For he

kne ho 2uring a risis of his oun"r# an2 "he hole

huan rae, "o (u" ues"ions in an iagina"i)el# 2eisi)e

sense. He rea"e2 en hose 2es"in# an2 inner life, hose

onfli"s an2 in"errela"ions i"h o"her hara"ers, hose

a""ra"ion an2 ree"ion of en an2 i2eas illuina"e2 all

"he 2ee(es" ues"ions of "ha" age, sooner, ore 2ee(l#, an2

ore i2el# "han in a)erage life i"self. /his iagina"i)e

an"ii(a"ion of "he s(iri"ual an2 oral 2e)elo(en" of "he

i)ili5e2 orl2 assure2 "he (oerful an2 las"ing effe" of

Dos"oe)sk#<s orks. /hese orks ha)e beoe e)en ore

"o(ial an2 ore fresh as "ie goes on.

2

Raskolniko) is "he Ras"igna of "he seon2 half of "he

nine"een"h en"ur#. Dos"oe)sk# a2ire2 -al5a, ha2

"ransla"e2 Eugenie Grandet, an2 surel# ui"e onsiousl#

resue2 "he "hee of his (re2eessor. /he )er# na"ure of

"his onne"ion shos his originali"#: his (oe"i gras( of "he

hange of "he "ies, of en, of "heir (s#holog# an2

orl2)ie.

erson sa "he reason for "he 2ee( an2 general effe" of 0a(oleon on "he hole in"elle"ual life of uro(e in "he fa"

"ha" 8"he (eo(le ho he sa#s are li""le 0a(oleons. He

(u" his finger on one si2e of "his influene: 0a(oleon

re(resen"e2 all "he )ir"ues an2 )ies (ossesse2 b# "he grea"

ass of en in his "ie an2 (ar"l# also in la"er "ies.

-al5a an2 "en2hal "urne2 "he ues"ion roun2 an2 a2e



"he neessar# a22i"ions. 0a(oleon a((eare2 "o "he as "he

grea" e!a(le for "he sa#ing "ha" sine "he Frenh

Re)olu"ion e)er# gif"e2 an arries a arshal<s ba"on in

his kna(sak, as "he grea" e!a(le of "he uni(e2e2 rise of

"alen"s in a 2eora"i soie"#. Hene as "he gauge for "he2eora"i hara"er of a soie"#: 's a 0a(oleon6like rise

(ossible or no"= Fro "his ues"ion folloe2 "he

(essiis"i ri"iis of -al5a an2 "en2hal: a reogni"ion

an2 a2ission "ha" "he heroi (erio2 of bourgeois soie"# +

an2 of "he rise of in2i)i2uals + as o)er an2 belonge2 "o

"he (as".

When Dos"oe)sk# a((eare2, "he heroi (erio2 ha2

ree2e2 e)en fur"her. /he bourgeois soie"# of Wes"ern

uro(e ha2 onsoli2a"e2 i"self. >gains" 0a(oleoni 2reas

ha2 been ere"e2 inner an2 ou"er barriers 2ifferen" an2

ore fir "han "hose ere"e2 in "he "ie of -al5a an2

"en2hal. /he Russia of Dos"oe)sk# as barel# beginning a

soial "ransfora"ion + "ha" is h# "he 0a(oleoni 2reas

of Russian #ou"h ere ore )iolen", ore (assiona"e "han

"hose of "heir Wes"ern uro(ean on"e(oraries. -u" "he

"ransfora"ion enoun"ere2 a" firs" insu(erable obs"alesin "he e!is"ing fir skele"on of "he ol2 soie"# ?hoe)er

2ea2 i" a# see in "he (ers(e"i)e of his"or#@. Russia as

2uring "his (erio2 a on"e(orar# of "he uro(e af"er

1&4&, i"h i"s 2isillusionen" i"h "he i2eals of "he

eigh"een"h en"ur# an2 i"s 2reas of a reno)a"ion an2

refora"ion of bourgeois soie"#. /his on"e(oranei"#

i"h uro(e arose, hoe)er, in a (rere)olu"ionar# (erio2

hen "he Russian ancien regime s"ill rule2 unheke2,

hen "he Russian 17&9 as s"ill in "he 2is"an" fu"ure.

)en Ras"igna sa 0a(oleon less as "he onre"e

his"orial heir of "he Frenh Re)olu"ion "han as a

8 "ro#esseur d$energie%& /he fasina"ing figure of 0a(oleon

se" an e!a(le less b# his ul"ia"e ais "han b# his



e"ho2, b# "he kin2s an2 "ehniues of his a"ion, b# his

a# of o)eroing obs"ales. "ill, in s(i"e of all "he

(s#hologial an2 oral a""enua"ions an2 sublia"ions of

"he i2eal, "he (euliar ais of "he genera"ion of "he

Ras"ignas reaine2 lear an2 soiall# onre"e.

/he si"ua"ion of Raskolniko) is e)en ore 2ei2e2l#

re)erse2. /he oral an2 (s#hologial (roble as for hi

alos" e!lusi)el# onre"e: "he abili"# of 0a(oleon "o s"e(

o)er en for "he sake of grea" ais + an abili"# hih

0a(oleon has, for ins"ane, in oon i"h Aohae2.

Fro suh a (s#hologial (ers(e"i)e "he onre"e

a"ion beoes for"ui"ous + an oasion ra"her "han a realai or eans. /he (s#hologial an2 oral 2iale"i of "he

(ro an2 on of "he a"ion beoes "he ru! of "he a""er:

"he "es" he"her Raskolniko) has "he oral a(ai"# "o

beoe a 0a(oleon. Conre"e a"ion beoes a

(s#hologial e!(erien" hih, hoe)er, risks "he hole

(h#sial an2 oral e!is"ene of "he e!(erien"er: an

e!(erien" hose 8for"ui"ous oasion an2 8for"ui"ous

sube" is, af"er all, ano"her huan being.

'n -al5a<s 'ere Goriot, Ras"igna an2 his frien2

-ianhon 2isuss briefl# "he oral (roble he"her one

oul2 ha)e "he righ" "o (ress a bu""on in or2er "o kill an

unknon Chinese an2arin if one reei)e2 a illion frans

for i". 'n -al5a "he on)ersa"ions are e(iso2es, i""#

b#(la#, oral illus"ra"ions for "he onre"e ain (robles

of "he no)el. 'n Dos"oe)sk# i" beoes "he en"ral ues"ion:

i"h grea" an2 2elibera"e ar" i" is a2e "he fous. /he(ra"ial an2 onre"e si2e of "he a" is (ushe2 asi2e i"h

eual 2elibera"ion. For e!a(le, Raskolniko) 2oes no" e)en

kno ho uh he has robbe2 fro "he (anbroker, his

ur2er is arefull# (lanne2 bu" he forge"s "o shu" "he 2oor,

an2 so on. >ll "hese 2e"ails e(hasi5e "he ain (oin": an



Raskolniko) orall# en2ure "he o)ers"e((ing of "he

boun2aries= >n2 (rini(all#: ha" are "he o"i)es hih

ork in hi for an2 agains" "he rie= ha" oral fores

oe in"o (la#= ha" (s#hologial inhibi"ions affe" his

2eision before an2 af"er "he rie= ha" (s#hi fores ishe able "o obili5e for "his 2eision an2 for his

(erse)erane af"erar2s=

/he en"al e!(erien" i"h hiself assues i"s on

2#nais; i" on"inues e)en hen i" has los" all (ra"ial

signifiane. /hus "he 2a# af"er "he ur2er Raskolniko)

goes "o "he fla" of "he (anbroker in or2er "o lis"en again "o

"he soun2 of "he 2oorbell hih ha2 "errifie2 an2 u(se" hi

so uh af"er "he killing an2 "o "es" again i"s (s#hi effe"s

on

hiself. /he (urer "he e!(erien" as suh, "he less an i"

gi)e a onre"e anser "o onre"e ues"ions. Raskolniko)<s

fun2aen"al (roble has beoe an e)en" in orl2

li"era"ure + (reisel# in onne"ion an2 in on"ras" "o his

grea" (re2eessor. Bus" as "he rise an2 effe"

of (ert)er oul2 ha)e been i(ossible i"hou"Rihar2son an2 Rousseau, so Raskolniko) is un"hinkable

i"hou" -al5a. -u" "he (u""ing of "he en"ral ues"ion

in Crime and *unis)ment is us" as original, s"iula"ing

an2 (ro(he"i as in (ert)er%

3

/he e!(erien" i"h oneself, "he e!eu"ion of an a"ionno" so uh for "he sake of "he on"en"s an2 effe"s of "he

a"ion, bu" in or2er "o kno oneself one for all, in 2e("h,

"o "he )er# bo""o, is one of "he ain huan (robles of

"he bourgeois an2 in"elle"ual orl2 of "he nine"een"h an2

"en"ie"h en"uries.



oe"he "ook a )er# ske("ial a""i"u2e "oar2 "he slogan

8no "h#self, "oar2 self6knole2ge b# self6anal#sis. For

hi a"ion as a a# "o self6knole2ge as s"ill "aken for

gran"e2. He (ossesse2 a s"able s#s"e of i2eals, "hough i"

a# no" ha)e been e!(ressl# forula"e2. 'n s"ri)ing for"hese i2eals, a"ions hih ere signifian" for "heir

on"en"s, for "heir in"ia"e rela"ions "o "he i2eals, ere

ao(lishe2 of neessi"#. elf6knole2ge "hus beoes a

b#6(ro2u" of "he a"ions. Aan, b# a"ing onre"el# in

soie"#, learns "o kno hiself.

)en hen "hese i2eals hange, e)en hen + he"her

reali5e2 or no" + "he# lose "heir eigh" an2 beoe rela"i)e,

ne i2eals "ake "he (lae of "he los" ones. Faus", Wilhel

Aeis"er ?an2 of ourse oe"he hiself@ ha)e "heir

(robles; bu" "he# ha)e no" beoe (robles "o

"hesel)es.

/he sae is "rue of "he grea" egois"s in -al5a. ooke2 a"

obe"i)el#, "he "urning inar2,

"he aking sube"i)e of "he i2eals of in2i)i2ualis,

a((ears )er# ues"ionable hen egois + "he e!al"a"ion a"

an# (rie of "he in2i)i2ual + beoes "he en"ral issue as i"

2oes so ons"an"l# in -al5a. -u" "hese obe"i)e (robles

lea2 onl# )er# rarel# in -al5a "o "he self62issolu"ion of "he

sube". 'n2i)i2ualis 2is(la#s here i"s "ragi ?or oi@

(robles )er# earl#; bu" "he in2i)i2ual i"self has no" #e"

beoe (roblea"ial.

nl# hen "his in2i)i2ualis "urns inar2 + hen i" fails"o fin2 an >rhie2ean (oin" ei"her in urren" soial ais

or in "he s(on"aneous urge of an ego"is"ial abi"ion +

2oes "he (roble of Dos"oe)sk#<s e!(erien"s arise.

"a)rogin, "he hero of +)e *ossessed, gi)es a suar# of



"hese (robles in his fareell le""er "o Dasha ha"o)

ie2ia"el# before his suii2e:

' "rie2 # s"reng"h e)er#here. Eou

a2)ise2 e "o 2o "his so as "o learn 8"okno #self. ... -u" ha" "o a((l# #

s"reng"h "o + "ha"<s ha" ' ha)e ne)er

seen an2 2on<" see no. ... ' an s"ill

ish "o 2o soe"hing goo2, as ' ala#s

oul2, an2 "ha" gi)es e a feeling of

(leasure. >" "he sae "ie ' ish "o 2o

soe"hing e)il an2 "ha" gi)es e

(leasure, "oo. ... A# 2esires are no"

s"rong enough, "he# anno" gui2e e.

Eou an ross a ri)er on a log bu" no" on

a hi( of oo2.[2]

>2i""e2l# "he ase of "a)rogin is )er# s(eial, )er#

2ifferen" fro "ha" of Raskolniko) an2 (ar"iularl#

2ifferen" fro "hese e!(erien"s in hih "he s"ri)ing for

self6knole2ge a((eals "o "he soul of o"her en: as, for

ins"ane, hen "he hero of otes #rom t)e-nderground, ho li)es alos" e!lusi)el# b# suh

e!(erien"s, s(eaks o(assiona"el# "o "he (ros"i"u"e i5a

in or2er "o "es" his (oer o)er her feelings; or hen, in +)e

.diot, 0as"as#a Fili(o)na "hros "he one hun2re2 "housan2

rubles brough" b# Rogo5hin in"o "he fire in or2er full# "o

kno an2 eno# "he eanness of an#a ')olgin, ho oul2

ge" "he one# if he oul2 (ull i" fro "he fire, an2 so on.

>ll "hese ases, hoe)er 2i)erse, ha)e soe"hingi(or"an" in oon. Firs" of all, "he# are i"hou"

e!e("ion "he a"ions of lonel# en + en ho are

o(le"el# 2e(en2en" on "hesel)es as "he# un2ers"an2

life an2 "heir en)ironen", ho li)e so 2ee(l# an2 in"ensel#

in "hesel)es "ha" "he soul of o"hers reains "o "he





fore)er an unknon oun"r#. /he o"her an is "o "he onl#

a s"range an2 enaing (oer hih ei"her subuga"es

"he or beoes sube" "o "he. When #oung Dolgoruk#

in Ra/ 0out) e!(oun2s his 8i2ea of beoing a

Ro"hshil2 an2 2esribes "he e!(erien"s "o reali5e his8i2ea, hih are (s#hologiall# )er# siilar "o "hose of

Raskolniko), he 2efines "heir na"ure as 8soli"u2e an2

8(oer. 'sola"ion, se(ara"ion, loneliness re2ues "he

rela"ions aong en "o a s"ruggle for su(eriori"# or

inferiori"#. /he e!(erien" is a sublia"e2 s(iri"ual for, a

(s#hologial "urning inar2 of nake2 s"ruggles for (oer.

-u" b# "his soli"u2e, b# "his iersion of "he sube" in

i"self, "he self beoes bo""oless. /here arises ei"her "he

anarh# of "a)rogin, a loss of 2ire"ion in all ins"in"s, or

"he obsession of a Raskolniko) b# an 8i2ea. > feeling, an

ai, an i2eal auires absolu"e so)ereign"# o)er "he soul of

a an: ', #ou, all en 2isa((ear, "urn in"o sha2os, e!is"

onl# subsue2 un2er "he 8i2ea. /his onoania a((ears

in a lo for in P#o"r erkho)ensk# ?+)e *ossessed @, ho

"akes en "o be ha" he ishes "he "o be; in a higher

for in "he oen ho ere hur" b# life. a"erina')ano)na ?+)e 1rot)ers Karama2ov@ lo)es onl# her on

)ir"ue, 0as"as#a Fili(o)na ?+)e .diot @, her on

huilia"ion: bo"h iagine "ha" "he# ill fin2 su((or" an2

sa"isfa"ion in "his lo)e. We fin2 "he highes" le)el of "his

(s#hi organi5a"ion in "he en of i2eas suh as

Raskolniko) an2 ')an araa5o). > horrif#ing,

aria"uring on"ras" "o "hese is er2#ako) ?+)e 1rot)ers

Karama2ov@, "he i2eologial an2 oral effe" of "he

2o"rine "ha" 8e)er#"hing is (eri""e2.

-u" (reisel# on "he highes" le)el 2oes "he o)ers"raine2

sube"i)i"# os" ob)iousl# "urn in"o i"s o((osi"e: "he rigi2

onoania of "he 8i2ea beoes absolu"e e("iness. /he

8ra #ou"h, Dolgoruk#, )er# gra(hiall# 2esribes "he



(s#hologial onseuenes of his obsession b# "he 8i2ea

of beoing a Ro"hshil2:

... ha)ing soe"hing fi!e2, (eranen"

an2 o)er(oering in one<s in2 in hih one is "erribl# absorbe2, one is, as

i" ere, reo)e2 b# i" fro "he hole

orl2, an2 e)er#"hing "ha" ha((ens

?e!e(" "he one grea" "hing@ sli(s b# one.

)en one<s i(ressions are har2l#

fore2 orre"l#. ... h, ' ha)e #

8i2ea, no"hing else a""ers, as ha" '

sai2 "o #self. ... /he 8i2ea ofor"e2

e in 2isgrae an2 insignifiane. -u"

all "he nas"# "hings ' 2i2 "ook refuge, as

i" ere, un2er "he 8i2ea. o "o s(eak, i"

soo"he2 o)er e)er#"hing, bu" also (u" a

is" before # e#es.[3]

Hene oes "he o(le"e inongrui"# be"een a"ion

an2 soul in "hese (eo(le. Hene oes "heir (ani fear of

being ri2iulous beause "he# are ons"an"l# aare of "hisinongrui"#. /he ore e!"ree "his in2i)i2ualis beoes,

"he ore "he self "urns inar2, "he s"ronger i" e)en

beoes ou"ar2l# an2 "he ore i" shu"s i"self off fro

obe"i)e reali"# i"h a Chinese all, "he ore i" loses i"self

in an inner )oi2. /he self hih suberges i"self in i"self,

anno" fin2 an# ore fir groun2; ha" seee2 fir

groun2 for a "ie "urns ou" "o be ere surfae; e)er#"hing

"ha" "e(oraril# a((eare2 i"h "he lai of gi)ing 2ire"ion

"urns in"o i"s o((osi"e. /he i2eal beoes o(le"el# sube"i)e, an alluring bu" ala#s 2ee("i)e #ata morgana%

/hus "he e!(erien" is "he 2es(era"e a""e(" "o fin2 fir

groun2 i"hin oneself, "o kno ho one is + a 2es(era"e

a""e(" "o (ull 2on "he Chinese all be"een "he ' an2





"he Eou, be"een "he self an2 "he orl2 + a 2es(era"e

a""e(" an2 ala#s a fu"ile a""e(". /he "rage2# + or "he

"ragioe2# + of "he lonel# an fin2s i"s (ures" e!(ression

in "he e!(erien".

4

> inor figure in Dos"oe)sk# 2esribes "he a"os(here of

"hese no)els briefl# an2 (oin"e2l#. he sa#s of i"s

hara"ers: 8/he# are all as if a" a railroa2 s"a"ion. >n2 "his

is "he essen"ial (oin".

Firs" of all, for "hese (eo(le e)er# si"ua"ion is (ro)isional.ne s"an2s a" a railroa2 s"a"ion, ai"ing for "he 2e(ar"ure

of "he "rain. /he railroa2 s"a"ion na"urall# is no" hoe, "he

"rain is neessaril# a "ransi"ion. /his iage e!(resses a

(er)asi)e feeling abou" life in Dos"oe)sk#<s orl2. 'n +)e

House o# t)e 3ead, Dos"oe)sk# rearks "ha" e)en (risoners

on2ene2 "o "en"# #ears of (enal ser)i"u2e regar2 "heir

life in (rison as soe"hing "ransi"or# an2 onsi2er i"

(ro)isional. 'n a le""er "o "he ri"i, "rakho), Dos"oe)sk#

o(ares his s"or# +)e Gambler, hih he as "hen

(lanning, i"h +)e House o# t)e 3ead% He an"e2 "o

ahie)e an effe" siilar "o "he one he ha2 ahie)e2 in +)e

House o# t)e 3ead% /he life of a gabler ?also a s#boli

figure for Dos"oe)sk# an2 his orl2@ is ne)er life (ro(er bu"

ra"her onl# a (re(ara"ion for "he life "o oe, for real life.

/hese en 2o no" (ro(erl# li)e in "he (resen", bu" onl# in a

ons"an" "ense e!(e"a"ion of "he 2eisi)e "urn in "heir

for"une. -u" e)en hen suh a "urn ours + usuall# as aresul" of "he e!(erien" + no"hing essen"ial is hange2 in

"he organi5a"ion of "heir inner orl2.

ne 2rea is (un"ure2 b# "he "ouh of reali"#: i"

olla(ses + an2 "here arises a ne 2rea of a ne "urn

aroun2 "he orner. ne "rain has lef" "he s"a"ion, one ai"s



for "he ne!" on e6 bu" a railroa2 s"a"ion ne)er"heless

reains a railroa2 s"a"ion, a (lae of "ransi".

Dos"oe)sk# is au"el# aare "ha" an a2eua"e e!(ression

of suh a orl2 (laes hi in o(le"e o((osi"ion "o "he ar"of "he (as" an2 "he (resen". >" "he en2 of Rate 0out) he

e!(resses "his on)i"ion in "he for of a ri"ial le""er on

"he eoirs of "he hero. He sees learl# "ha" suh a orl2

oul2 no" (ossibl# be 2oina"e2 b# "he beau"# of nna

Karenina% -u" "hen he us"ifies his on for, he 2oes no"

2o so b# raising a ues"ion of (ure aes"he"is. n "he

on"rar#, he "hinks "ha" "he beau"# of /ols"o#<s no)els

?Dos"oe)sk# 2oes no" nae "he bu" "he allusion is

unis"akable@ belongs reall# "o "he (as" an2 no" "o "he

(resen" an2 "ha" "hese orks ha)e, in "heir essene, alrea2#

beoe his"orial no)els. /he soial ri"iis oneale2

behin2 "he aes"he"i onfli" is a2e onre"e b# 2esribing

"he fail# hose fa"e is rela"e2 in Dolgoruk#<s eoirs as

no" a noral bu" an 8ai2en"al fail#. >or2ing "o "he

ri"er of "he le""er, "he on"ras" of beau"# an2 "he ne

realis is 2ue "o a hange in "he s"ru"ure of soie"#. n "he

one han2, "he 8arbi"rariness, "he abnorali"# of "he fail# a((ears in "he in2s of "he in2i)i2uals + "he be""er (eo(le

of "he (resen" age are alos" all en"all# ill, sa#s a figure of

"ha" no)el; an2 on "he o"her han2, all "he 2is"or"ions i"hin

"he fail# are onl# "he os" ons(iuous e!(ression of a

2ee( risis in "he hole soie"#.

'n seeing an2 (resen"ing "his, Dos"oe)sk# beoes "he

firs" an2 grea"es" (oe" of "he o2ern a(i"alis" e"ro(olis.

/here ere of ourse (oe"i "rea"en"s of i"# life long before Dos"oe)sk#: as earl# as "he eigh"een"h en"ur#

Defoe<s Moll 'landers eerge2 as a as"er(iee of "he i"#.

Dikens, in (ar"iular, ga)e (oe"i e!(ression "o "he

(euliar soli"u2e of "he grea" i"#. ?Dos"oe)sk# lo)es an2

(raises Dikens os" en"husias"iall# for "his )er# reason.@



>n2 -al5a ha2 ske"he2 "he Dan"esue irles of a ne,

on"e(orar# Hell in his (i"ure of Paris.

>ll "his is "rue an2 one oul2 a22 uh ore. -u"

Dos"oe)sk# as "he firs" + an2 is s"ill unsur(asse2 + in2raing "he en"al 2efora"ions "ha" are brough" abou" as

a soial neessi"# b# life in a o2ern i"#. /he genius of

Dos"oe)sk# onsis"s (reisel# in his (oer of reogni5ing

an2 re(resen"ing "he 2#nais of a fu"ure soial, oral an2

(s#hologial e)olu"ion fro gers of soe"hing barel#

beginning.

We us" a22 "ha" Dos"oe)sk# 2oes no" onfine hiself "o

2esri("ion an2 anal#sis + "o ere 8or(holog#, "o use afashionable "er of (resen"62a# agnos"iis + bu" offers

also a genesis, a 2iale"i an2 a (ers(e"i)e.

/he (roble of genesis is 2eisi)e. Dos"oe)sk# sees "he

s"ar"ing (oin" of "he s(eifi na"ure of his hara"ers<

(s#hologial organi5a"ion in "he (ar"iular for of urban

iser#. /ake "he grea" no)els an2 s"ories of Dos"oe)sk#<s

a"ure (erio2: otes #rom t)e -nderground, +)e .nsulted

and t)e .n4ured, Crime and *unis)ment% 'n eah one of

"he e are shon ho "he (robles "ha" e 2isusse2

fro "he (oin" of )ie of "heir (s#hi onseuenes, ho

"he (s#hi organi5a"ion of Dos"oe)sk#<s hara"ers, ho

"he 2efora"ions of "heir oral i2eals gro ou" of "he soial

iser# of "he o2ern e"ro(olis. /he insul"ing an2

inuring of en in "he i"# is "he basis of "heir orbi2

in2i)i2ualis, "heir orbi2 2esire for (oer o)er

"hesel)es an2 "heir neighbors.

'n general, Dos"oe)sk# 2oes no" like 2esri("ions of

e!"ernal reali"#: he is no" a "aysagiste, as /urgene) an2

/ols"o# are, eah in his on anner. -u" beause he gras(s

i"h "he )isionar# (oer of a (oe" "he uni"# of "he inner



an2 "he ou"er + "he soial an2 "he (s#hi + organi5a"ion

here in "he iser# of "he i"#, unsur(asse2 (i"ures of

Pe"ersburg eerge, (ar"iularl# in Crime and

*unis)ment, (i"ures of "he ne e"ro(olis + fro "he

offinlike furnishe2 roo of "he hero "hrough "he s"iflingnarroness of "he (olie s"a"ion "o "he en"er of "he slu

2is"ri", "he Ha#arke", an2 "he no"urnal s"ree"s an2

bri2ges.

Ee" Dos"oe)sk# is ne)er a s(eialis" in ilieu. His ork

ebraes "he hole of soie"#, fro "he 8highes" "o "he

8loes", fro Pe"ersburg "o a reo"e (ro)inial )illage.

-u" "he 8(riar# (henoenon + an2 "his ar"is"i "rai"

"hros a s"rong ligh" on "he soial genesis of "he books +

reains ala#s "he sae: "he iser# of Pe"ersburg. Wha" is

e!(eriene2 in Pe"ersburg is generali5e2 b# Dos"oe)sk# as

)ali2 for "he hole of soie"#. Bus" as in "he (ro)inial

"rage2ies, +)e *ossessed an2 +lie 1rot)ers

Karama2ov, Pe"ersburg hara"ers ?"a)rogin an2 ')an@ se"

"he "one, so in "he 2e(i"ion of "he hole soie"# "he (a""ern

is se" b# ha" has gron ou" fro 82on "here in iser#.

-al5a reogni5e2 an2 re(resen"e2 "he 2ee(

(s#hologial (arallelis be"een "he 8u((er an2 "he

8loer an2 sa learl# "ha" "he fors of e!(ression of "he

soiall# loer oul2 ha)e grea" a2)an"ages o)er "hose of

"he u((er s"ra"u.

-u" Dos"oe)sk# is onerne2 i"h uh ore "han a

(roble of ar"is"i e!(ression. /he Pe"ersburg iser#,

(ar"iularl# "ha" of in"elle"ual #ou"h, is for hi "he (ures"lassial s#("o of his 8(riar# (henoenon: "he

aliena"ion of "he in2i)i2ual fro "he broa2 s"rea of "he

life of "he (eo(le, hih "o Dos"oe)sk# is "he las" an2

2eisi)e soial reason for all "he en"al an2 oral

2efora"ions e ha)e ske"he2 abo)e. ne an obser)e "he



sae 2efora"ions also in "he u((er s"ra"a. -u" here one

sees ra"her "he (s#hologial resul"s, hile in "he forer

"he soial an2 (s#hologial (roess of "heir genesis oes

ou" uh ore learl#. 8G( "here "he his"orial onne"ion

of "his (s#hi organi5a"ion i"h "he (as" an be 2iserne2.ork# )er# au"el# sees in ')an araa5o) a (s#hi

2esen2an" of "he (assi)e noblean bloo). 8Don

"here, hoe)er, "he rebellious eleen" gains "he u((er

han2 an2 (oin"s "o "he fu"ure.

/his 2i)ore be"een "he lonel# in2i)i2ual an2 "he life of

"he (eo(le is "he (re)ailing "hee of bourgeois li"era"ure in

"he seon2 half of "he nine"een"h en"ur#. /his "#(e

2oina"es "he bourgeois li"era"ure of "he Wes" 2uring "his

(erio2 + he"her i" is ae("e2 or ree"e2, l#riall#

i2eali5e2 or sa"iriall# aria"ure2. -u" e)en in "he grea"es"

ri"ers, in Flauber" an2 'bsen, "he (s#hologial an2 oral

onseuenes a((ear ore (roinen"l# "han "heir soial

basis. nl# in Russia, in /ols"o# an2 Dos"oe)sk#, is "he

(roble raise2 in all i"s brea2"h an2 2e("h.

/ols"o# on"ras"s his heroes ho ha)e los" on"a" i"h"he (eo(le + an2 hene ha)e los" "he obe"i)i"# of "heir

i2eals, "heir oral s"an2ar2s an2 "heir (s#hologial

su((or" + i"h "he (easan" lass, hih as "hen

a((aren"l# ui"e iobile, bu" as a"uall# going "hrough

a (roess of o(le"e "ransfora"ion. '"s slo an2 of"en

on"ra2i"or# "ransi"ion "o soial a"ion beae i(or"an"

for "he fa"e of "he 2eora"i reneal of Russia onl# uh

la"er.

Dos"oe)sk# in)es"iga"es "he sae (roess of "he

2issolu"ion of ol2 Russia an2 "he gers of i"s rebir"h

(riaril# in "he iser# of "he i"ies aong "he 8insul"e2

an2 inure2 of Pe"ersburg. /heir in)olun"ar# aliena"ion

fro "he ol2 life of "he (eo(le + hih onl# la"er beae an



i2eolog#, a ill an2 a"i)i"#, "heir + (ro)isional + inabili"#

"o 8onne" i"h "he (o(ular o)een" hih as s"ill

gro(ing for an ai an2 2ire"ion, as Dos"oe)sk#<s

8(riar# soial (henoenon.

nl# "his (oin" of )ie illuina"es "he aliena"ion of "he

u((er s"ra"a fro "he (eo(le in Dos"oe)sk#. Wi"h a

2ifferen" e(hasis, bu" essen"iall# as in /ols"o#, i" is

i2leness, life i"hou" ork + "he o(le"e isola"ion of "he

soul hih oes fro i2leness + hih a# be "ragi or

gro"esue or, os" freuen"l#, "ragioi + bu" ala#s

2eforing. Whe"her i" is )i2rigailo), "a)rogin, ersilo),

i5a hokhlako), >gla#a Ee(anhin or 0as"as#a Fili(o)na:

for Dos"oe)sk# "heir i2le or, a" os", ailessl# a"i)e li)es

are ala#s "he foun2a"ion of "heir ho(eless soli"u2e.

5

/his (lebeian "rai" shar(l# 2is"inguishes Dos"oe)sk# fro

(arallel Wes"ern li"erar# o)een"s hih, in (ar", arose

siul"aneousl# i"h hi an2, in (ar", arose a" a la"er s"age

+ un2er his influene + fro "he 2i)erse "ren2s of li"erar#

(s#hologis.

'n "he Wes" "his li"erar# "ren2 + hih in Frane 2on2

2e onour" hel(e2 "o (re(are an2 -ourge", Hu#sans an2

o"hers hel(e2 "o reali5e + as (riaril# a rea"ion agains"

"he (lebeian "en2enies of na"uralis, hih ere no"

(ar"iularl# s"rong an#a#. onour" onsi2ere2 "he

hange an ar"is"i onues" of "he u((er s"ra"a of soie"#, hile na"uralis ha2 onerne2 i"self largel# i"h "he loer

lasses. 'n "he la"er re(resen"a"i)es of "his "en2en# + u( "o

Prous" + "he aris"ora"i an2 mondain "rai" of li"erar#

(s#hologis oes ou" e)en ore forefull#.



/he ul" of "he inner life a((ears as a (ri)ilege of "he

u((er lasses of soie"#, in on"ras" "o "he bru"al ear"h#

onfli"s of "he loer lasses "ha" na"uralis "rie2 "o

o(rehen2 ar"is"iall# b# here2i"# an2 en)ironen". /he

ul" "herefore "akes on a 2ouble as(e". n "he one han2, i"is oue""ish, )ain, highl# self6onsious + e)en in ases

here i" le2 in2i)i2uall# "o "ragi 2es"inies. n "he o"her

han2, i" is 2ei2e2l# onser)a"i)e, beause os" Wes"ern

au"hors anno" o((ose "he en"al an2 oral ins"abili"# of

lonel# i"#

in2i)i2ualis"s here 2esribe2 i"h an#"hing ore "han

"he ol2 s(iri"ual fores + (riaril# "he au"hori"# of "he

Roan Ca"holi Churh, as soe"hing "ha" igh" offer

refuge "o erring souls.

Dos"oe)sk#<s ansers in his ournalis"i ri"ings + an2

also in his no)els + (arallel "hese "en2enies of bourgeois

li"era"ure in his a((eal "o "he Russian r"ho2o! Churh.

-u" "he orre"ness an2 2e("h of his (oe"i ues"ionings

lea2 hi far be#on2 his narro hori5on an2 (ush hi in"o

shar( o((osi"ion "o (arallel (henoena in "he Wes".

'n (ar"iular "he orl2 of Dos"oe)sk# laks an# "rae of

orl2l# ske("ial oue"r#, of )ain self6onsiousness, or of

"o#ing i"h his on loneliness an2 2es(air. 8We ala#s

(la#, an2 ho knos "his, is ise, sa#s >r"hur hni"5ler

an2 "hereb# e!(resses "he os" e!"ree on"ras" "o "he

orl2 of Dos"oe)sk#<s hara"ers. For "heir 2es(air is no"

"he s(ie of life, hih is o"herise bore2 an2 i2le, bu"

2es(air in "he os" genuine, os" li"eral sense. /heir2es(air is an a"ual banging a" lose2 2oors, an ebi""ere2,

fu"ile s"ruggle for "he eaning of life hih is los" or in

2anger of being los".



-eause "his 2es(air is genuine, i" is a (rini(le of e!ess,

again in shar( on"ras" "o "he orl2l# (olishe2 fors of

os" of "he Wes"ern ske("is. Dos"oe)sk# sha""ers all fors

+ beau"iful an2 ugl#, genuine an2 false + beause "he

2es(era"e an an no longer onsi2er "he an a2eua"ee!(ression for ha" he is seeking for his soul. >ll "he

barriers "ha" soial on)en"ion has ere"e2 be"een en

are (ulle2 2on in or2er "ha" no"hing bu" s(on"aneous

sineri"#, "o "he os" e!"ree lii"s, "o "he u""er lak of

shae, a# (re)ail aong en. /he horror a" "he

loneliness of en eru("s here i"h irresis"ible (oer

(reisel# beause all "hese (i"iless 2es"ru"ions are s"ill

unable "o reo)e "he soli"u2e.

/he ournalis" Dos"oe)sk# oul2 s(eak onsolingl# in a

onser)a"i)e sense, bu" "he huan on"en", "he (oe"i

"e(o an2 "he (oe"i rh#"h of his s(eeh, ha)e a

rebellious "one an2 "hus fin2 "hesel)es ons"an"l# in

o((osi"ion "o his highes" (oli"ial an2 soial in"en"ions.

/he s"ruggle of "hese "o "en2enies in Dos"oe)sk#<s

in2 #iel2s )er# 2i)erse resul"s. oe"ies, ra"herfreuen"l#, "he (oli"ial ournalis" ins ou" o)er "he (oe":

"he na"ural 2#nais of his hara"ers, 2i"a"e2 b# his

)ision + in2e(en2en"l# of his onsious ais + an2 no" b#

his ill are )iola"e2 an2 2is"or"e2 "o fi" his (oli"ial

o(inions. /he shar( ri"iis a2e b# ork# "ha"

Dos"oe)sk# slan2ers his on hara"ers a((lies "o suh

ases.

-u" )er# freuen"l# "he resul" is ra"her "he o((osi"e. /hehara"ers eani(a"e "hesel)es an2 lea2 "heir on li)es

"o "he )er# en2, "o "he os" e!"ree onseuenes of "heir

inborn na"ure. /he 2iale"is of "heir e)olu"ion, "heir

i2eologial s"ruggle, "akes a o(le"el# 2ifferen" 2ire"ion

"han "he onsiousl# en)isage2 goals of "he ournalis"



Dos"oe)sk#. /he (oe"i ues"ion, orre"l# (u", "riu(hs

o)er "he (oli"ial in"en"ions, "he soial anser of "he ri"er.

nl# "here 2oes "he 2e("h an2 orre"ness of

Dos"oe)sk#<s ues"ioning asser" i"self full#. '" is a re)ol"agains" "ha" oral an2 (s#hi 2efora"ion of an hih

is ause2 b# "he e)olu"ion of a(i"alis. Dos"oe)sk#<s

hara"ers go "o "he en2 of "he soiall# neessar# self6

2is"or"ion unafrai2, an2 "heir self62issolu"ion, "heir self6

e!eu"ion, is "he os" )iolen" (ro"es" "ha" oul2 ha)e been

a2e agains" "he organi5a"ion of life in "ha" "ie. /he

e!(erien"a"ion of Dos"oe)sk#<s hara"er is "hus (u" in"o

a ne ligh": i" is a 2es(era"e a""e(" "o break "hrough "he

barriers hih 2efor "he soul an2 ai, 2is"or" an2

2iseber life. /he rea"or Dos"oe)sk# 2oes no" kno "he

orre" 2ire"ion of "he break"hrough, an2 oul2 no" kno

i". /he ournalis" an2 (hiloso(her (oin"e2 in "he rong

2ire"ion. -u" "ha" "his (roble of "he break"hrough ours

i"h e)er# genuine u(surge of "he in2 (oin"s "o "he fu"ure

an2 2eons"ra"es "he unbreakable (oer of huani"#

hih ill ne)er be sa"isfie2 i"h half easures an2 false

solu"ions.

)er# genuine an in Dos"oe)sk# breaks "hrough "his

barrier, e)en "hough he (erishes in "he a""e(". /he fa"al

a""ra"ion of Raskolniko) an2 on#a is onl# su(erfiiall#

one of e!"ree o((osi"es. ui"e righ"l# Raskolniko) "ells

on#a "ha" b# her boun2less s(iri" of self6sarifie, b# "he

selfless goo2ness hih a2e her a (ros"i"u"e in or2er "o

sa)e her fail#, she herself ha2 broken "he barrier an2

"ransen2e2 "he lii"s + us" as he ha2 2one b# ur2ering"he (anbroker. For Dos"oe)sk# "his "ransen2ene as in

on#a ore genuine, ore huan, ore ie2ia"e, ore

(lebeian "han in Raskolniko).



Here "he ligh" shines in "he 2arkness an2 no" here "he

ournalis" Dos"oe)sk# fanie2 he sa i". Ao2ern soli"u2e is

"ha" 2arkness. 8/he# sa#, sa#s a 2es(era"e hara"er in

Dos"oe)sk#, 8"ha" "he ell6fe2 anno" un2ers"an2 "he

hungr#, bu" ' oul2 a22 "ha" "he hungr# 2o no" ala#sun2ers"an2 "he hungr#.I[4] /here is a((aren"l# no" a ra# of

ligh" in "his 2arkness. Wha" Dos"oe)sk# "hough" "o be suh

a ra# as onl# a ill6o<6"he6is(.

/he a#s "ha" Dos"oe)sk# (oin"s ou" for his hara"ers

are i(assable. >s a rea"or he hiself feels "hese

(robles 2ee(l#. He (reahes fai"h, bu" in reali"# + as a

rea"or of en + he 2oes no" hiself belie)e "ha" "he an

of his age an ha)e fai"h in his sense. '" is his a"heis"s ho

ha)e genuine 2e("h of "hough", a genuine fer)or for "he

ues".

He (reahes "he a# of Chris"ian sarifie. -u" his firs"

(osi"i)e hero, Prine A#shkin in +)e .diot, is

fun2aen"all# a"#(ial an2 (a"hologial beause he is

unable, largel# 2ue "o his illness, "o o)eroe inar2l# his

egois + e)en in lo)e. /he (roble of )i"or# o)er egois,"o hih Prine A#shkin as su((ose2 "o fin2 "he anser

rea"i)el#, anno" be (u" onre"el#, rea"i)el#, beause of

"his (a"hologial foun2a"ion. '" a# be sai2 in (assing "ha"

"he lii"less o(assion of A#shkin auses a" leas" as

uh "ragi suffering as "he 2arkl# in2i)i2ualis"i (a"hos of

Raskolniko).

When, a" "he en2 of his areer, Dos"oe)sk# an"e2 "o

rea"e a heal"h# (osi"i)e figure in >l#osha araa5o), he )ailla"e2 ons"an"l# be"een "o e!"rees. 'n "he e!"an"

no)el >l#osha a"uall# sees "o be a heal"h# oun"er(ar" of

Prine A#shkin, a Dos"oe)skean sain". -u" "he no)el as e

kno i" + us" fro "he (oin" of )ie of "he ain hero + is

onl# a beginning, onl# "he s"or# of his #ou"h. We also kno





soe"hing of Dos"oe)sk#<s (lans for a on"inua"ion. 'n a

le""er "o "he (oe" Aaiko) he ri"es: 8/he hero in "he ourse

of his life is for a hile an a"heis", "hen a belie)er, "hen

again a 5ealo" an2 se"arian, an2 a" "he en2 he beoes

again an a"heis". /his le""er full# onfirs ha" u)orinre(or"s of a on)ersa"ion i"h Dos"oe)sk#, hih a#

soun2 s"ar"ling a" firs". u)orin "ells us "ha" 8"he hero is "o

oi" a (oli"ial rie a" "he (ro(er oen" an2 is "o be

e!eu"e2; he is a an "hirs"ing for "ru"h ho in his ues"

has ui"e na"urall# beoe a re)olu"ionar#. We anno"

kno of ourse he"her an2 ho far Dos"oe)sk# oul2

ha)e arrie2 "he hara"er of >l#osha in "his 2ire"ion. "ill,

i" is ore "han hara"eris"i "ha" "he inner 2#nais of hisfa)ori"e hero ha2 "o "ake "his 2ire"ion.

/hus "he orl2 of Dos"oe)sk#<s hara"ers 2issol)es his

(oli"ial i2eals in"o haos. -u" "his haos i"self is grea" in

Dos"oe)sk#: his (oerful (ro"es" agains" e)er#"hing false

an2 2is"or"ing in o2ern bourgeois soie"#. '" is no hane

"ha" "he eor# of a (i"ure b# Clau2e orrain, cis and

Galat)ea, reurs se)eral "ies in his no)els. '" is ala#s

alle2 8/he ol2en >ge b# his heroes an2 is 2esribe2 as"he os" (oerful s#bol of "heir 2ee(es" #earning.

/he gol2en age: genuine an2 haronious rela"ions

be"een genuine an2 haronious en. Dos"oe)sk#<s

hara"ers kno "ha" "his is a 2rea in "he (resen" age bu"

"he# anno" an2 ill no" aban2on "he 2rea. /he# anno"

aban2on "he 2rea e)en hen os" of "heir feelings

shar(l# on"ra2i" i". /his 2rea is "he "rul# genuine ore,

"he real gol2 of Dos"oe)sk#<s G"o(ias; a s"a"e of "he orl2 in hih en a# kno an2 lo)e eah o"her, in hih ul"ure

an2 i)ili5a"ion ill no" be an obs"ale "o "he 2e)elo(en"

of en.



/he s(on"aneous, il2 an2 blin2 re)ol" of Dos"oe)sk#<s

hara"ers ours in "he nae of "he gol2en age, ha"e)er

"he on"en"s of "he en"al e!(erien" a# be. /his re)ol"

is (oe"iall# grea" an2 his"oriall# (rogressi)e in

Dos"oe)sk#: here reall# shines a ligh" in "he 2arkness of Pe"ersburg iser#, a ligh" "ha" illuina"es "he roa2 "o "he

fu"ure of ankin2.

1. > le""er "o >. u)orin, "ober $7, 1&&&. ?/ransla"or<sno"e.@

2. +)e *ossessed% Cons"ane arne"" "ransla"ion, o2ifie2.

3. > Ra/ 0out)% /ransla"e2 b# Cons"ane arne"".

4. /he ol2 'hen#e) in +)e .nsulted and t)e .n4ured% /ransla"e2 b# Cons"ane arne"". ?/ransla"or<sno"e.@

Georg Lukacs Archive

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Georg Lukacs 1949