Language and cultureLanguage and culture

Foreign language learning is comprised of Foreign language learning is comprised of several components, including grammatical several components, including grammatical competence, communicative competence, competence, communicative competence, language proficiency, as well as a change in language proficiency, as well as a change in attitudes towards one’s own or another attitudes towards one’s own or another culture. For scholars and laymen alike, culture. For scholars and laymen alike, cultural competence, i.e., the knowledge of cultural competence, i.e., the knowledge of the conventions, customs, beliefs, and the conventions, customs, beliefs, and systems of meaning of another country, is systems of meaning of another country, is indisputably an integral part of foreign indisputably an integral part of foreign language learning, and many teachers have language learning, and many teachers have seen it as their goal to incorporate the seen it as their goal to incorporate the teaching of culture into the foreign teaching of culture into the foreign language curriculum.language curriculum.

foreign language learning is foreign foreign language learning is foreign culture learning, and, in one form or culture learning, and, in one form or another, culture has, even implicitly, another, culture has, even implicitly, been taught in the foreign language been taught in the foreign language classroom—if for different reasons. classroom—if for different reasons. What is debatable, though, is what is What is debatable, though, is what is meant by the term “culture” and how meant by the term “culture” and how the latter is integrated into language the latter is integrated into language learning and teaching. Kramsch’s learning and teaching. Kramsch’s keen observation should not go keen observation should not go unnoticed:unnoticed:

Culture in language learning is not an Culture in language learning is not an expendable fifth skill, tacked on, so expendable fifth skill, tacked on, so to speak, to the teaching of speaking, to speak, to the teaching of speaking, listening, reading, and writing. It is listening, reading, and writing. It is always in the background, right from always in the background, right from day one, ready to unsettle the good day one, ready to unsettle the good language learners when they expect language learners when they expect it least, making evident the it least, making evident the limitations of their hard-won limitations of their hard-won communicative competence, communicative competence, challenging their ability to make challenging their ability to make sense of the world around them. sense of the world around them. (Kramsch, 1993: 1)(Kramsch, 1993: 1)

It would be nothing short of ludicrous to It would be nothing short of ludicrous to assert that culture is merely a repository of assert that culture is merely a repository of facts and experiences to which one can facts and experiences to which one can have recourse, if need be. Furthermore, have recourse, if need be. Furthermore, what Kramsch herself seems to insinuate is what Kramsch herself seems to insinuate is that to learn a foreign language is not that to learn a foreign language is not merely to learn how to communicate but merely to learn how to communicate but also to discover how much leeway the also to discover how much leeway the target language allows learners to target language allows learners to manipulate grammatical forms, sounds, and manipulate grammatical forms, sounds, and meanings, and to reflect upon, or even meanings, and to reflect upon, or even flout, socially accepted norms at work both flout, socially accepted norms at work both in their own or the target culture.in their own or the target culture.

Culture and CC Culture and CC we cannot go about fostering “communicative we cannot go about fostering “communicative

competence” without taking into account the competence” without taking into account the different views and perspectives of people in different views and perspectives of people in different cultures which may enhance or even inhibit different cultures which may enhance or even inhibit communication. After all, communication requires communication. After all, communication requires understanding, and understanding requires stepping understanding, and understanding requires stepping into the shoes of the foreigner and sifting her into the shoes of the foreigner and sifting her cultural baggage, while always ‘putting [the target] cultural baggage, while always ‘putting [the target] culture in relation with one’s own’ (Kramsch, 1993: culture in relation with one’s own’ (Kramsch, 1993: 205). Moreover, we should be cognisant of the fact 205). Moreover, we should be cognisant of the fact that ‘[i]f we teach language without teaching at the that ‘[i]f we teach language without teaching at the same time the culture in which it operates, we are same time the culture in which it operates, we are teaching meaningless symbols or symbols to which teaching meaningless symbols or symbols to which the student attaches the wrong meaning…’ (Politzer, the student attaches the wrong meaning…’ (Politzer, 1959: 100-101).1959: 100-101).

Language And Culture: What IS Culture And Why Language And Culture: What IS Culture And Why

Should IT BE Taught?Should IT BE Taught? To begin with, language is a To begin with, language is a

social institution, both shaping social institution, both shaping and shaped by society at large, and shaped by society at large, or in particular the ‘cultural or in particular the ‘cultural niches’ (Eleanor Armour-Thomas niches’ (Eleanor Armour-Thomas & Sharon-ann Gopaul-McNicol, & Sharon-ann Gopaul-McNicol, 1998) in which it plays an 1998) in which it plays an important role.important role.

Amongst those who have dilated upon the affinity Amongst those who have dilated upon the affinity between language and culture, it is Duranti who between language and culture, it is Duranti who succinctly encapsulates how these two succinctly encapsulates how these two interpenetrate:interpenetrate:

to be part of a culture means to share the to be part of a culture means to share the propositional knowledge and the rules of inference propositional knowledge and the rules of inference necessary to understand whether certain necessary to understand whether certain propositions are true (given certain premises). To propositions are true (given certain premises). To the propositional knowledge, one might add the the propositional knowledge, one might add the procedural knowledge to carry out tasks such as procedural knowledge to carry out tasks such as cooking, weaving, farming, fishing, giving a formal cooking, weaving, farming, fishing, giving a formal speech, answering the phone, asking for a favor, speech, answering the phone, asking for a favor, writing a letter for a job application (Duranti, 1997: writing a letter for a job application (Duranti, 1997: 28-29).28-29).

language acquisition does not language acquisition does not follow a universal sequence, but follow a universal sequence, but differs across cultures; the differs across cultures; the process of becoming a process of becoming a competent member of society is competent member of society is realized through exchanges of realized through exchanges of language in particular social language in particular social situations;situations;

every society orchestrates the ways in every society orchestrates the ways in which children participate in which children participate in

particular situations, and this, in turn, particular situations, and this, in turn, affects the form, the function and affects the form, the function and

the content of children’s utterances; the content of children’s utterances; caregivers’ primary concern is not with caregivers’ primary concern is not with

grammatical input, but with the grammatical input, but with the transmission of sociocultural knowledge; transmission of sociocultural knowledge; the native learner, in addition to the native learner, in addition to

language, acquires also the language, acquires also the paralinguistic patterns and the kinesics of paralinguistic patterns and the kinesics of

his or her culture.his or her culture.

Language teaching is culture teaching and Language teaching is culture teaching and teachers do their students a great teachers do their students a great disservice in placing emphasis on the disservice in placing emphasis on the former, to the detriment of the latter. As former, to the detriment of the latter. As Buttjes (1990: 55-56) notes, ‘language Buttjes (1990: 55-56) notes, ‘language teachers need to go beyond monitoring teachers need to go beyond monitoring linguistic production in the classroom and linguistic production in the classroom and become aware of the complex and become aware of the complex and numerous processes of intercultural numerous processes of intercultural mediation that any foreign language learner mediation that any foreign language learner undergoes…’. To hark back to the undergoes…’. To hark back to the relationship between language and culture; relationship between language and culture; Samovar, Porter, & Jain (1981: 24) observe:Samovar, Porter, & Jain (1981: 24) observe:

Culture and communication are Culture and communication are inseparable because culture not only inseparable because culture not only dictates who talks to whom, about dictates who talks to whom, about what, and how the communication what, and how the communication proceeds, it also helps to determine proceeds, it also helps to determine how people encode messages, the how people encode messages, the meanings they have for messages, meanings they have for messages, and the conditions and circumstances and the conditions and circumstances under which various messages may or under which various messages may or may not be sent, noticed, or may not be sent, noticed, or interpreted... Culture...is the interpreted... Culture...is the foundation of communication.foundation of communication.

Moreover, given Duranti’s (1997: 24) Moreover, given Duranti’s (1997: 24) definition of culture as ‘something definition of culture as ‘something learned, transmitted, passed down learned, transmitted, passed down from one generation to the next, from one generation to the next, through human actions, often in the through human actions, often in the form of face-to-face interaction, and, form of face-to-face interaction, and, of course, through linguistic of course, through linguistic communication’, it is patently obvious communication’, it is patently obvious that language, albeit a subpart of that language, albeit a subpart of culture, plays a pivotal role.culture, plays a pivotal role.

According to Sapir lights, According to Sapir lights, ‘[c]ulture may be defined as ‘[c]ulture may be defined as what a society does and thinks. what a society does and thinks. Language is a particular how of Language is a particular how of thought’thought’

In a similar vein, Bruner (1996: In a similar vein, Bruner (1996: 3) says that ‘[a]lthough 3) says that ‘[a]lthough meanings are “in the mind,” meanings are “in the mind,” they have their origins and their they have their origins and their significance in the culture in significance in the culture in which they are created’.which they are created’.

And he adds, ‘human beings do And he adds, ‘human beings do not terminate at their own skins; not terminate at their own skins; they are expressions of a they are expressions of a culture’ (Bruner, 1990: 12).culture’ (Bruner, 1990: 12).

According to Peck (1998), According to Peck (1998), Culture is all the accepted and Culture is all the accepted and patterned ways of behavior of a patterned ways of behavior of a given people. It is that facet of given people. It is that facet of human life learned by people as human life learned by people as a result of belonging to some a result of belonging to some particular group; it is that part of particular group; it is that part of learned behavior shared with learned behavior shared with others.others.

It could be argued that culture It could be argued that culture never remains static, but is never remains static, but is constantly changing.constantly changing. Goodenough (1981: 62) Goodenough (1981: 62) summarises the contents of summarises the contents of culture briefly quoted below:culture briefly quoted below:

The ways in which people have organized The ways in which people have organized their experience of the real world so as to their experience of the real world so as to give it structure as a phenomenal world of give it structure as a phenomenal world of forms, their percepts and concepts. forms, their percepts and concepts.

The ways in which people have organized The ways in which people have organized their experience of their phenomenal world their experience of their phenomenal world so as to give it structure as a system of so as to give it structure as a system of cause and effect relationships, that is, the cause and effect relationships, that is, the propositions and beliefs by which they propositions and beliefs by which they explain events and accomplish their explain events and accomplish their purposes.purposes.

The ways in which people have organized The ways in which people have organized their experiences so as to structure their their experiences so as to structure their world in hierarchies of preferences, namely, world in hierarchies of preferences, namely, their value or sentiment systems. their value or sentiment systems.

The ways in which people have organized The ways in which people have organized their experience of their past efforts to their experience of their past efforts to accomplish recurring purposes into accomplish recurring purposes into operational procedures for accomplishing operational procedures for accomplishing these purposes in the future, that is, a set these purposes in the future, that is, a set of “grammatical” principles of action and a of “grammatical” principles of action and a series of recipes for accomplishing series of recipes for accomplishing particular ends.particular ends.

Culture creates and solves Culture creates and solves problems. If, within a specific problems. If, within a specific culture, cows are looked upon as culture, cows are looked upon as sacred animals, or breaking a sacred animals, or breaking a mirror is assumed to bring bad mirror is assumed to bring bad luck, ‘threats are posed which do luck, ‘threats are posed which do not arise out of the inexorable not arise out of the inexorable facts of the external world’facts of the external world’

the teaching of culture has the the teaching of culture has the following goals and is of and in following goals and is of and in itself a means of accomplishing itself a means of accomplishing them:them:

To help students to develop an To help students to develop an understanding of the fact that all understanding of the fact that all people exhibit culturally-people exhibit culturally-conditioned behaviours.conditioned behaviours.

To help students to develop an To help students to develop an understanding that social variables such as understanding that social variables such as age, sex, social class, and place of age, sex, social class, and place of residence influence the ways in which residence influence the ways in which people speak and behave. people speak and behave.

To help students to become more aware of To help students to become more aware of conventional behaviour in common conventional behaviour in common situations in the target culture. situations in the target culture.

To help students to increase their To help students to increase their awareness of the cultural connotations of awareness of the cultural connotations of words and phrases in the target language.words and phrases in the target language.

To help students to develop the To help students to develop the ability to evaluate and refine ability to evaluate and refine generalizations about the target generalizations about the target culture, in terms of supporting culture, in terms of supporting evidence. evidence.

To help students to develop the To help students to develop the necessary skills to locate and necessary skills to locate and organize information about the target organize information about the target culture. culture.

To stimulate students’ intellectual To stimulate students’ intellectual curiosity about the target culture, curiosity about the target culture, and to encourage empathy towards and to encourage empathy towards its people.its people.