The Rise of Jacksonian Democracy

Photo Credit: http://www.rustycans.com/andrew-jackson.jpg

Though Andrew Jackson himself

served only two terms as President, he was a

dominant political figure in the 1820s,

1830s and 1840s. This era is often

characterized as the “Age of Jackson”

Photo Credit: http://www.thecemeteryproject.com/images/Photos/Jackson,%20Andrew.jpg

It is a time when people are awakened to the

importance of politics and the era reflects a

wider form of democracy than ever seen before.

Photo Credit: http://www.utexas.edu/opa/pubs/discovery/disc2001v16n1/democracy.jpg

The presidency of James Monroe (the 5th President of the U. S.)

was largely uneventful.

Photo Credit: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/James_Monroe_02.jpg/280px-James_Monroe_02.jpg

The U.S. and Great Britain signed the Rush-Bagot agreement in 1818 which

established a northern boundary to the Louisiana Purchase and limited naval

power on the Great Lakes.

During the Monroe Presidency, there were still “respect” issues regarding

Great Britain and the War of 1812 to be ultimately settled.

Florida was purchased from Spain for $5 million. (1819)

The Panic of 1819 began (real estate values dropped, the cotton market

collapsed, and bank loans were unavailable).

The Tariff of 1824 offered protectionist measures for manufacturers.

The Supreme Court ruled in McCulloch v. Maryland (1819) that under the “necessary and proper” clause of the Constitution, it was constitutional for the

national government to create a bank. The Court also ruled that states could not

tax federal agencies.

After months of fierce debate regarding “rules” about slavery when admitting

new states to the Union, Congress agreed to the Missouri Compromise line. (1820)

With the exception of Missouri, which was admitted as a slave state, all future states admitted to the U. S. north of the

line were to be free, and all states admitted to the U. S. south of the line

were to be slave states.

Photo Credit: http://buhler.usd313.k12.ks.us/phms/shared/bleeding_kansas_graphics/Missouri_Compromise.jpg

Monroe enunciated a policy of neutrality towards Latin American countries

seeking independence, though he does, in his second term, state an intention to

acknowledge them.

Monroe also began to formulate what would become later known as the “Monroe Doctrine” – a sort of U. S.

exclusivity to the western hemisphere.

Monroe’s attempts to negotiate with the Seminoles and Cherokees of the South

(who protested the white encroachment upon their land) failed. Though offers to

purchase were made, in the end, the natives were forced from their land.

Separate political parties all but disappeared during Monroe’s presidency. Most folks

called themselves “Republican” in this “Era of Good Feelings.”

(Political parties returned with a vengeance as the Jacksonian era progressed.)

Jacksonian era politics are characterized by:

• strong political parties

• noisy, mudslinging elections

• high voter turnout

• new election procedures (i.e. national nominating conventions)

The election of 1824 set the stage for the era. Andrew Jackson won the popular

vote, but not a majority (over 50%) of the electoral vote. According to the

Constitution, the House of Representatives selects the President

when there is no clear electoral winner.

Candidate John Quincy Adams met secretly with Speaker of the House (and

candidate) Henry Clay. Subsequently, at Clay’s urging, the House selected Adams to be President. Adams then appointed

Clay Secretary of State.

Society saw a “corrupt bargain.”

John Quincy Adams Henry Clay

Photo Credits: http://www.eadshome.com/images/John%20Quincy%20Adams.jpg and http://odur.let.rug.nl/~usa/images/2003/HenryClay.jpg

Adams policies of

• keeping efficient office holders in their jobs,

• careful opening of western lands, and

• fair dealings with the Native Americans

all hurt his image and his presidency.

In keeping with the American System (which Adams liked), anti-Adams

congressmen “rigged” a tariff bill to damage Adams presidency.

The Tariff of 1828 placed very high tariffs on certain manufactured goods and raw materials (especially wool).

The congressmen thought Adams supporters from the northern states

would vote it down, thus giving Adams a political “black eye.” However, the

northern states liked protectionist tariffs and voted for the bill.

Southerners were heavy consumers of manufactured goods.

High tariffs = high prices of goods = harmful to the Southern economy.

Southerners also produced raw materials; foreign nations bought less

Southern raw materials when Americans bought less of European goods due to

tariffs. (balance of trade)

Southerners began to call this tariff the “Tariff of Abominations.”

John C. Calhoun of South Carolina anonymously

proposed in his pamphlet “The Exposition” that the States should declare the

tariff “null and void within their borders.”

Photo Credit: http://xroads.virginia.edu/~CAP/smithson/calhoun.jpg

The Election of 1828

“Seldom has the public mind been so successfully poisoned against an honest and

honorable president.”

John Quincy Adams and Andrew Jackson met again as opponents. The election was “ugly,” replete with mudslinging from all sides. Adams was accused of mishandling

public funds, Jackson was accused of murder and adultery.

Though Andrew Jackson emerged the victor,

Rachel Jackson’s reputation was

destroyed. Rachel died less than 3 months before her

husband’s inauguration. President Jackson firmly

believed the attacks on Rachel’s character killed her and referred to the attackers as

“murderers”Photo Credit: http://www.reformation.org/usbank.html

(See http://www.britannica.com/presidentsWebapp/article.do?articleID=9097182 and http://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h325.html )

Andrew Jackson was a “frontier aristocrat” and a “states’ rights” man

• large landholdings

• many slaves

• no college education

Jackson and his Vice-President, John C. Calhoun, seemed a perfect match. States’

rights advocates were optimistic.

Instability in the Government

Jackson favored rewarding loyal supporters with government jobs. Though Jackson, himself, did not do this extensively, his

acceptance of this “spoils system” led to its widespread practice and a grave increase in

government corruption.

From Harper's Weekly, April 28, 1877, page 325.

Dangers of the spoils system:

• no job security for federal employees

• unqualified and/or unscrupulous people get important jobs and mishandle

(or steal) government assets

• growth of corrupt “political machines” and “bosses”

Instability in the Cabinet

When Peggy Eaton, the wife of Jackson’s minister of war became enveloped in scandal, the wives of

the other cabinet officials refused to accept her. Jackson eventually demanded that all except one (Martin Van

Buren) of his cabinet members resign.(See http://womenshistory.about.com/library/prm/blandrewjackson1.htm)

Photo Credit: http://www.foundersofamerica.org/previous.html

Photo credit: http://womenshistory.about.com/library/prm/blandrewjackson1.htm)

This scandal was called

“The Petticoat Wars” or “The Peggy

Eaton Affair.” Jackson did not have an “affair” with Peggy Eaton.

Jackson turned to his informal “Kitchen Cabinet” for advice until a

new official cabinet was formed.(See

http://college.hmco.com/history/readerscomp/rcah/html/ah_050600_kitchencabin.htm )

Cartoon credit: http://www.aga-balt.com/Board-Meeting.gif

Instability in the Congress

The Tariff of 1828 divided the Senate along sectional lines.

Senators Daniel Webster of Massachusetts and Robert Hayne of

South Carolina debated the issue.

(The Webster-Hayne Debate)

Senator Hayne asserted the states’ rights to nullify congressional legislation in order to

safeguard minority interests.

Senator Webster asserted that nullification was an insidious danger that would destroy the Union, and that only the Supreme Court

should have the authority to judge the constitutionality of laws.

Congress attempted to modify the “abominable” Tariff of 1828 by passing

reduced tariff rates in 1832.

The reduced rates fell short of southern expectations. South Carolina voted in special convention to nullify the tariff and threatened to secede from the Union if anyone attempted

to collect the customs duties.

Photo Credit: http://visualhistory.freewebpages.org/1789-Pre-CivilWar.html

Though he was a “states’ rights” man, Andrew Jackson violently opposed

nullification and secession, and prepared for war against South Carolina.

In order to prevent war, Congress rapidly passed a compromise tariff which reduced

tariff rates over an eight year period. Congress also passed the “Force Act”

authorizing the President to use the Army and the Navy to collect federal tariff duties.

South Carolina repealed her nullification ordinance, but voted to nullify the

Force Bill.

Civil War was staved, for the time being.

The Petticoat Wars and South Carolina’s position on nullification of legislation led to irreconcilable differences between Jackson

and Vice President John C. Calhoun. Calhoun resigned.

Conflicts Between Branches of Gov’t

More than any President before him, Jackson liberally exercised his

Presidential veto power, kindling the ire of Congress.

Arguments regarding the recharter of the 2nd Bank of the United States sponsored

by Senator Henry Clay brought this conflict to the forefront.

The Bank of the United States was a private corporation in which the federal government was a major stockholder.

Arguments For the Bank of the U. S.

Arguments Against the Bank of the U. S.

• reduced bank failures• provided a stable national currency• provided a safe depository for the national government • promoted economic expansion by providing credit• the Supreme Court had ruled in McCulloch v. Maryland that it was constitutional for the national government to create a bank

• too much competition for small banks• catered to the wealthy • corrupt lending practices (money lent to influence politicians & newspapers)• conflicts of interest (senators chartering the bank were also stockholders and debtors)• created a monster monopoly• the 10th Amendment requires banking to be left to the States

Jackson hated Henry Clay and therefore hated the Bank of the U.S. Wearing his “states’ rights” hat, he vowed to veto the

recharter and to “kill” the Bank.

Congressional opponents of

Jackson began to call him “King

Andrew I,” because he refused to defer

to Congress in policy making.

Photo Credit: http://www.historyteacher.net/AHAP/WebQuests/WQ-ImpeachJackson/WQ-ImpJackson-

Student-Intro.htm

After defeating Henry Clay in the Presidential election of 1832, Jackson remained true to his vow to “kill” the

Bank of the United States by removing federal funds from the Bank and placing them in his favorite “pet” state banks.

The Bank of the U. S. eventually collapsed, causing 1000s of bank failures

over the next century.

Native American Policy

Over 125,000 Native Americans lived east of the Mississippi in the 1820s. Many

were Christian cotton farmers of the “5 civilized tribes” (Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, Cherokee, and Seminole) who attempted to live peacefully with their

white neighbors.

White cotton farmers, eager for more land, pressured the federal government to acquire

Indian land.

The Indian Removal Act of 1830 gave the President the power to negotiate removal

treaties with Indian tribes living east of the Mississippi. The natives could move west, or

become citizens of the States in which they lived.

The Choctaw negotiated a treaty. Many who stayed to become citizens were swindled by

land hungry whites. The remaining Choctaws sold their land and moved west.

The Seminoles were tricked into signing a treaty, and fought removal in a series of wars

lasting until 1858. In the end, the federal government paid them to move West.

See: http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part4/4p2959.html

The Creeks refused to move. They became poverty stricken as land speculators cheated

them out of their land. The Creeks began stealing and committing more violent acts.

They were move “as a matter of military necessity.”

The Chickasaws signed a treaty in return for government protection until they moved. The federal government did not keep its promise.

See: http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part4/4p2959.html

The Cherokee were tricked with an illegitimate treaty. In 1838 (under Van Buren’s presidency), the federal government sent 7,000 troops who forced the Cherokee into stockades at bayonet point. The Cherokee

were not allowed to return to their homes or gather their belongings.

See: http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part4/4p2959.html

Thus began the “Trail of Tears,” the forced march of the Cherokee to

Oklahoma territory.

4,000 Cherokee people died of cold, hunger, and disease on their way to the

western lands.

See: http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part4/4p2959.html

Photo Credit: http://homepage.univie.ac.at/kurt.mayer/graphics/TrailTearsl.jpg

The Censure of Andrew Jackson

Congress was determined to assert control over “King Andrew” and attempted to impeach him for assuming powers not

conferred upon the Chief Executive by the Constitution.

The House debated three articles of impeachment:

1. Jackson violated the separation of powers in his actions to destroy the

Bank of the U.S.

2. Jackson violated states’ rights in his dealings with South Carolina during the

nullification controversy.

3. Jackson violated laws, treaties and Supreme Court decisions in his dealings

with the Native Americans.

The vote for the articles of impeachment failed. The Senate voted instead to

censure Jackson.

Vice President Martin Van Buren ran successfully for

President in 1836, with Jackson’s sponsorship.

Van Buren’s Presidency was marred by financial depression, Canadian rebellion and

debate over the annexation of Texas.Photo Credit: http://www.historicprints.com/shop/images/products/8%20Martin%20Van%20Buren14x18.jpg

Van Buren hoped to stabilize the economy by creating an independent treasury in

which to place government funds.

The Independent Treasury Bill (aka Divorce Bill) reversed Jackson’s wish to

place federal money in state banks.

The Divorce Bill created a federal treasury in Washington DC and several

subtreasuries in cities across the country. It removed access to federal funds from

poorly managed state banks..