THE ROLE OF THE MOTHER-DAUGHTER RELATIONSHIP IN TAIWANESE COLLEGE STUDENTS' CAREER SELF-EFFICACY.pdf

7/25/2019 THE ROLE OF THE MOTHER-DAUGHTER RELATIONSHIP IN TAIWANESE COLLEGE STUDENTS' CAREER SELF-EFFICACY

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THE ROLE OF THE MOTHER-DAUGHTER RELATIONSHIPIN TAIWANESE COLLEGE STUDENTS CAREER

SELF-EFFICACY

CHING-HUAMAO

Chihlee Institute of Technology

YING-CHUHSUANDTZU-WEIFANGNational Chiao Tung University

In this study, we examined the effects of the mother-daughter relationship on the career

self-efficacy of 394 female Taiwanese college students, including feelings of attachment

and psychological separation. Through hierarchical regression analysis, the mother-daughter

attachment relationship was found to separately and significantly facilitate predictions of

career self-efficacy at the first level. The predictivity of the added psychological separation

variable on career self-efficacy at the second level also reached significance after controllingfor the mother-daughter attachment relationship. Additionally, the communication of the

attachment relationship and the functional independence and conflictual independence

of psychological separation were significant predictors. This suggests that people who a)

communicate well with their mothers and who are able to manage personal matters without

help from mothers, or b) have conflictual relationships with their mothers that lead to negative

emotions, have better career self-efficacy.

Keywords: career self-efficacy, mother-daughter relationship, attachment, psychological

separation.

Career self-efficacy is an individuals degree of confidence about solving issues

related to future career planning; Hackett and Betz (1981), who referenced

Banduras (1977) self-efficacy theory, proposed this idea. Betz and Hacket

SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND PERSONALITY, 2012,40(9), 1511-1522

Society for Personality Research

http://dx.doi.org/10.2224/sbp.2012.40.9.1511

Ching-Hua Mao, Department of Business Administration and Graduate School of Service and


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MATERNAL RELATIONSHIPS AND CAREER SELF-EFFICACY1512

(1997) organized 15 years of relevant literature and meta-analyses and confirmed

that career self-efficacy could be used to effectively predict the selection of

education and subsequent career, academic performance, and whether people

adhere to their selected career choice. Hackett and Betz also stated that career

self-efficacy theory could be used to explain differences between men andwomen in terms of their career development, given that career self-efficacy

is a product of socialization and learning experiences. In the past, female

career development has been suppressed and discouraged across the world

leading to low self-efficacy in women in some career fields (Betz & Hackett

1997). In particular, ones family has been found to be the origin of individua

socialization; interactions with parents are key factors for development and are

one of the crucial sources that shape career self-efficacy (Ferry, Fouad, & Smith

2000; Wolfe & Betz, 2004).

Career development theories in the 20th century have been focused on

personal autonomy in making choices, and influencing factors from the

environment have not been taken into account (Bluestein, 2011). The exposition

of career development over the past decade has been affected by relationship

contexts, and the influences of support from others for career development and

self-efficacy have been emphasized. This discourse is guided by the relationa

approach to career development, in which the interconnectivity between thequality of interpersonal interaction and career development is confirmed

(Schultheiss, 2003). Of the various supportive relationships, numerous scholars

have emphasized childrens relationship with their parents (Sharf, 2010)

Researchers have also confirmed that of the relationship contexts that affect the

career of an individual, the relationship with his/her parents is the most critical

factor (Fisher & Griggs, 1995). Nauta and Kokaly (2001) and Schultheiss, Kress

Manzi, and Glasscock (2001) showed that, compared to fathers, mothers have the

most influence on college students in terms of career development. In a study oTaiwanese college students, Lin (2004) also found that career self-efficacy could

be most effectively predicted in those who experienced recognition and approva

from interactions with their same-sex parent (i.e., father-son or mother-daughter)

and who perceived themselves to be autonomous. Therefore, we believe tha

the career development of female college students can be better understood by

exploring their relationships with their mothers, rather than with their fathers.

In the early stages, the effect of mother-daughter interaction on the careerdevelopment of daughters was studied based on attachment theory. Attachmen

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MATERNAL RELATIONSHIPS AND CAREER SELF-EFFICACY 1513

model of this attachment relationship has a continuous effect on the way in

which an individual views him/herself and others as s/he develops. In other

words, the relationship between an individual and his/her caregivers in the

infancy stage affects the future relationships between the individual (as s/he

reaches late adolescence) and his/her parents and peers. Blustein, Prezioso, andSchultheiss (1995) believe a secure attachment relationship provides adolescents

with emotional support, which allows them to explore themselves and their

surrounding environments. This emotional connection also allows adolescents to

have the confidence to be adventurous and to commit to crucial career choices.

In empirical studies Western scholars clearly indicate that a variable for

psychological separation must be added to attachment relationships in order to

make comprehensive predictions about the career development of adolescents

and youths (Blustein, Walbridge, Friedlander, & Palladino, 1991; OBrien, 1996

OBrien & Fassinger, 1993). The concept of psychological separation was first

derived from the theory of object relations (Mahler, Pine, & Bergman, 1975)

and that of psychoanalysis (Fromm & Funk, 1992), in which the process of

psychological separation between mothers and their infants was investigated

Hoffman (1984) compared the individuation process of infants, and discovered

that there are four dimensions of independence involved in the process of

psychological separation in infants: 1) functional independence, or the abilityto solve personal problems or not to seek parents opinions; 2) emotiona

independence, or freedom from excessive need for approval, intimacy, and

emotional support from parents; 3) attitudinal independence, or the developmen

of attitudes, beliefs, and values that are different from those of their parents, and

the formation of individual opinions; and 4) conflictual independence, or the

ability of adolescents to break free from the guilt, anxiety, distrust, and anger they

perceive during conflicts with their parents.

Scholars have differed in their opinions as to whether the attachmenrelationship or psychological separation has a greater influence on females

career development. For example, Lucas (1997) and OBrien, Friedman, Tipton

and Linn (2000) found that the correlation of the psychological separation

variable was less critical than that of the attachment relationship in the career

self-efficacy of female students, and that the predictivity of psychologica

separation on career self-efficacy was insignificant. However, OBrien (1996)

found that attachment alone in the mother-daughter relationship could not predicthe career self-efficacy of female students, but the psychological separation

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Feminist scholars have criticized conventional theories overemphasis on the

processes of separation and individualization, whilst investigations into women

wishes to retain their own identities and their relationships while engaging in

self-development have been neglected. Therefore, Surrey (1991) proposed the

self-in-relationship, stating that the maintenance of relationships with others isimportant for women; female self-identity develops within relationships, no

through separation. In addition to feminist perspectives, differences between

Eastern and Western cultures are also an appropriate entry point for interpreting

psychological separation. Psychological separation is a product of Western

culture and society, in which individual development is emphasized. However

the collectivism of Eastern culture, in which family links, interdependence

and obliging the wishes of others are stressed, consequently discourages

psychological separation between children and parents. Therefore, this cultura

difference must be considered when investigating mother-daughter relationships

Alternatively, some scholars have considered that individualization must be

built upon the connections of relationships (Grotevant & Cooper, 1986; Josselson

1980). Thus, psychological separation was constructed on the foundation of the

connections of attachment relationships, and the key issue lay in the balance

between individuality and connectivity. In empirical studies by Li (1999) and

Liu (2005), this argument was also supported. Liu found that in the contextof Chinese relationships, separation and attachment were both important in

mother-daughter relationships. Li discovered that to Taiwanese college students

the coexistence of intimacy and individualization was most suitable for overal

psychosocial development, but intimacy was more critical than individualization

To summarize the preceding literature, career self-efficacy is a critica

concept that permits analysis of the characteristics of female careers. Empirica

researchers have also stated that the mother-daughter relationship has a

substantial influence on the career self-efficacy of women (Lin, 2004; OBrien1996; OBrien et al., 2000). However, there are varying opinions regarding

the multiple effects of attachment and psychological separation in mother

daughter relationships; a phenomenon that is worthy of further exploration. In

our analysis of the preceding literature, we found that a number of scholars

believe that individuation is established on a foundation of relationship bonds

Additionally, because women value relationships and parent-child relationships

are emphasized in Eastern culture, the attachment between mothers and daughtersis likely to have a crucial influence on career self-efficacy. However, empirica

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Hypothesis 1:The mother-daughter attachment relationship will be a significan

predictor of the daughters career self-efficacy.

Hypothesis 2: The mother-daughter psychological separation relationship will be

a significant predictor of the daughters career self-efficacy.

Method

Participants

Participants were students attending general education courses at seven

technical and vocational colleges in northern Taiwan. A total of 403 female

students agreed to complete a written questionnaire. After removing the invalid

responses, 394 valid questionnaires remained; among them, 261 questionnaires

(66.2%) were from students in their junior year, and 133 questionnaires (33.8%)

were from students in their senior year.

Measures

In addition to personal background variables, we also investigated psychologica

separation, maternal attachment, and career self-efficacy. The inventories and

scales used to measure these variables are described below.

Psychological separation.To measure psychological separation, we adoptedthe Separation-individuation Inventory translated into Taiwanese by Wu (2004)

This inventory was modified from Hoffmans (1984) Psychological Separation

Inventory (PSI), in which the theories of psychoanalysis and of family systems

were combined. The inventory includes four dimensions for measuring the

degree of participants independence in parent-child relationships: functional

emotional, attitudinal, and conflictual independence. To conform to the study

objective of investigating mother-daughter psychological separation, parent in

the content of this inventory was changed to mother.Higher scores on the inventory indicate a higher degree of psychologica

separation of the responding female student with her mother in that dimension

The internal consistency Cronbachs coefficient of the overall inventory was

.94; those for the four dimensions were .92, .89, .87, and .86, respectively. These

results suggested that the inventory had good reliability and utility.

Maternal attachment. To measure maternal attachment, we adopted the

Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment translated into Taiwanese by Wu

(2004). This inventory was modified from the Inventory of Parent and Peer

Attachment (IPPA) established by Armsden and Greenberg (1987) which was


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relationship with her mother. This inventory was divided into three dimensions

communication, intimacy, and trust. The internal consistency Cronbachs

coefficient of the overall inventory was .90, and those for the three dimensions

were .91, .77, and .81, respectively. These results suggest that the inventory had

good reliability and utility.Career self-efficacy.To measure career self-efficacy, we adopted the short form

of the Career Decision Self-efficacy Scale (CDMSEShort Form) formulated by

Betz, Klein, and Taylor (1996). The scale was composed of five dimensions

accuracy of self-appraisal, gathering of occupational information, goal selection

planning for the future, and problem-solving. Betz et al. conducted an internal

reliability test on this scale, gaining Cronbachs values for the five dimensions

that ranged between .73 and .83, with that of the overall scale being .94. These

results suggested that the inventory had good reliability and utility.

Results

To verify Hypotheses 1 and 2, that is, that mother-daughter attachmen

relationships and psychological separation relationships can predict career

self-efficacy, we employed hierarchical regression analysis to establish differen

levels for these two variables to determine their predictive performanceAccording to the literature, psychological separation is established on a

foundation of secure attachment relationships (Bandura, 1977). Therefore, we

only considered the mother-daughter attachment relationship variable in the first

level of the regression analysis. After we controlled for the mother-daughter

attachment relationship in the second level, the mother-daughter psychologica

separation variable was included. Based on the research hypotheses, we infer

that placing only the mother-daughter attachment variable at the first hierarchica

level allows us to significantly predict career self-efficacy. Additionally, theadded explained variance reaches a level of significance if the mother-daughter

psychological separation variable is included in the second hierarchical level

after controlling for the mother-daughter attachment relationship.

As can be seen in Table 1, our results verified the research hypotheses

The mother-daughter attachment relationship at the first level separately and

significantly predicted career self-efficacy. The predictivity of the added

psychological separation variable on career self-efficacy at the second levealso reached significance after controlling for the mother-daughter attachmen

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student and her mother allows the student to share her experiences of frustrating

events, for example, for which the mother can provide timely attention, support

or suggestions. This interaction could be used to effectively predict higher career

self-efficacy in female students.

Table 1. Results from the Hierarchical Regression Analysis that Predicts Career Self-efficacy

from Mother-Daughter Attachment and Psychological Separation

Model 1 Model 2

Variables t t

Communication .145* 1.992 .248** 2.872

Intimacy .009 .148 .083 1.286

Trust .049 .656 .130 1.601Functional independence .209* 2.107

Emotional independence .096 1.143

Attitudinal independence -.085 -1.023

Conflictual independence -.187** -2.718

R2 .034 .069

F 3.760* 3.373**

R2change .035

Fchange 3.013*

Note:*p< .05, **p< .01.

Furthermore, functional independence in a positive direction and conflictua

independence in a negative direction in relation to the mother-daughter

psychological separation variable could also be used to significantly predict

career self-efficacy, meaning that a female student who does not require

assistance from her mother and who is able to manage her own personal affairs

has higher career self-efficacy. However, the salient point in this study is thatconflictual independence was negatively correlated with career self-efficacy

in female college students, meaning that a student who feels guilt, anger, and

resentment over conflicts with her mother will tend to have higher career

self-efficacy compared to a student who experiences less conflict.

Discussion

The outcomes from this study are different from those gained by OBrien(1996), who found that the psychological separation variable in mother-daughter


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characteristics of females are interpersonal-oriented and formed through the

connection of the self with others. Therefore, a female student who has positive

communicative interactions with her mother will have higher career self-efficacy

Our results also confirm the relational approach to career development, that is

that having an interactive connection with others has a positive effect on onescareer (Schultheiss, 2003). Therefore, the connection of a female student with

her mother, and the support provided by the mother, would enhance the self-

confidence of the student while facing career development challenges.

Our results in this study also differ from those gained by Lucas (1997) and

OBrien et al. (2000). These researchers found that psychological separation

cannot be used to significantly predict the career self-efficacy of female

students. However, our results indicate that in addition to the mother-daughter

attachment relationship, psychological separation can also effectively predic

the career self-efficacy of female students. This result is consistent with tha

gained by a number of scholars (see e.g., Grotevant & Cooper, 1986; Josselson

1980; Li, 1999; Liu, 2005), who found that separation and attachment are both

crucial in the process of the individual development of adolescent girls, or

that psychological separation is established on the foundation of connective

attachment relationships. Therefore, female students can develop individuation

only if they have stable mother-daughter attachment relationships and have theconfidence to face tasks in future career development.

Furthermore, similar to the results gained in this study, a number of

researchers have found that as the psychological separation variable was

added to the mother-daughter attachment relationship for joint prediction of

career development (or self-identification), the conflictual independence of

psychological separation frequently reached a significant predictive value along

with attachment relationship (Blustein et al., 1991; OBrien, 1996; Schultheiss

& Blustein, 1994). However, Blustein et al. and Schultheiss and Blusteinindicated that the predictive value of conflictual independence was positive; that

is, a female college student who could break free from the negative emotions

resulting from the conflictual relationship in the process of separating from her

mother could proceed to commit to her career. However, the results gained in

this study and those of OBrien show that the predictive value of conflictua

independence is negative; meaning that the guilt, anger, and resentment derived

from conflicts in the separation process of a female student separating from hermother is advantageous to the students career self-efficacy. This result suggests

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the career self-efficacy of female students. The effect of emotional connection

between mother and daughter on the level of confidence in female students for

solving future career issues has been confirmed in numerous empirical studies

(see e.g., Blustein et al., 1995; OBrien, 1996; OBrien et al., 2000; Ryan, Solberg

& Brown, 1996). However, further investigations are required to determine theeffects of the mixed emotions involved in mother-daughter separation on career

self-efficacy. In Eastern collectivism in particular, familial connection and interde

pendence are stressed, and the development of psychological separation between

children and parents is discouraged; therefore, the development of separation and

individuation are constrained by culture and are more problematic. Subsequen

qualitative studies with more detailed perspectives are required to explore this

difficult separation process and its effect on career self-efficacy.

The result of hierarchical regression analysis indicates that the explained

variance of mother-daughter attachment and psychological separation on career

self-efficacy is only 6.9%; implying that the mother-daughter relationship plays

a small but significant role in the degree of female college students confidence

about facing future career issues. This finding is consistent with that of

Hargrove, Greagh, and Burgess (2002) regarding the effect of patterns of familia

interaction on the confidence level of college students while participating in

career-planning activities. Hargrove et al. also found that the explained varianceis low but significant.

In fact, based on theories of adolescent development, some scholars believe

that adolescents shift the focus of their relationships from parents to peers

Felsman and Blustein (1999) found that college students who have close and

intimate relationships with their peers in addition to exploring and making

commitments in the attachment relationship with their mothers can also explore

their surrounding environments and make commitments to their career choices

so that peers occupy a greater proportion of their relationships than do theirmothers. It is yet to be determined whether this result implies that the relationship

needs of female college students also expand from family to peer interaction

because the developmental tasks of college students expand to reliance upon

peers for support. Thus, it is recommended that in future studies related to female

careers the scope of the investigation is expanded from familial interactions to

the surrounding interpersonal interactions of students with their peers.

The participants in this study were technical and vocational college studentsfrom northern Taiwan; therefore, the results of the study may not be generalizable

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universities in Taiwan have a college education or above, but only 13.6% of

the mothers of freshmen in the private technical and vocational colleges have a

similar level of education. Therefore, we must consider whether differences in

mothers educational backgrounds affects the mother-daughter relationship and

adds difficulties to generalizing study results to students in general universities.

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