The Cold War1945-1979

Origins of the conflict1914-1945

Communism V Capitalism• Communism:• ‘each according to

their needs’.• Government controls

means of production.• Capitalism:• Varying amounts of

wealth, some have more than others. • Industry is privatised.

Russian withdrawal from WWI• The Bolshevik Government

surrendered to Germany in early 1918 despite the allies wanting the Russians to continue fighting to prevent the freeing up of the German Army on the Eastern Front.

• Their surrender was on early sign that relations between the Soviet Union and the West would not be easy.

Execution of Tsar Nicholas II• When the Tsar was

executed King George V (cousin and friend of the Tsar) refused to enter into communications with the Soviet government.

Allied support in the Russian Civil War (until 1920)• The allied forces

supported the White armies during the civil war.• This conflict focused

on the annihilation of the Soviet government so would annoy the Soviets and develop distrust.

Comintern• The Communist

International (Or third international)• Parties needed to accept

21 conditions.• It was dissolved by Stalin

in 1943.• Replaced by Cominform in

1947.• Committed to the

‘overthrow of the international bourgeoisie.’

1930s Politics1934-1939

Appeasement• During the 1930s Britain

and France appeased Nazi Germany which frustrated the USSR since Hitler’s talk of lebensraum to the East would mean war between the Reich and Soviet Union.

• It appeared to Stalin that the West were reluctant to stop this because of the appeasement.

Molotov Ribbentrop Pact (1939)• Communazi division

of Eastern Europe.• The MR Pact shows

how Stalin was pragmatic- he placed security over ideology in this instance.

WWII1939-1945

WWII• Operation Barbarossa

(22.6.1941) came as a surprise to Stalin who had trusted Hitler.• Barbarossa destroyed

the USSR and put in no position to expand. • It also served to fuel

Stalin’s paranoia of the West.

WWII• The Red Army waited

outside Warsaw allowing the Wehrmacht to annihilate the 1944 uprising- asides from waiting when they could have helped because the communists liberated Poland, rather than the Polish, the communists established a government.

WWII• Stalin was suspicious as to why it

took so long to open a second front- the allies had agreed to a landing before June 1944.

• In May 1942 Roosevelt had promised Molotov that they would open a second front before the end of the year.

• When Truman became president he took a hard line approach to Stalin refusing to appease the Soviet leader.

• The Americans refused to give details about their atomic bomb (though that was to anyone, not just the USSR)

Tehran Conference • The Tehran conference was

held 28th November to December 1st 1943.

• The big three disagreed over whether the communist government in exile or non-communist government in exile should become the Polish government upon the liberation of Poland.

• Stalin wanted a Communist Poland to prevent an invasion like Operation Barbarossa from happening again to the USSR.

Tehran Conference• It was agreed that Britain

and the US would open a second front in France in May 1944 with a follow up operation in Southern France. Stalin added he would launch an offensive at the same time.

• It was agreed that the Yugoslav Partisan movement (a communist group) would be supported by the allies.

Liberation of Europe1943-1945

Eastern ‘Liberation’ STAVKA

Poland 1944• As the Red Army marched

through Poland they destroyed the non-communist resistance, the Polish Home Army.

• The Soviet troops waited outside Warsaw allowing the uprising to be decimated by the Wehrmacht and only allowing allied support in mid-September when it was too late to make any difference.

• As the Russians advanced, the NKVD, along with Polish communists, shot or imprisoned partisans from the Home Army.

Romania 1944• The Romanian King negotiated an

armistice with the Soviets on 12th September and Romania was occupied by the Red Army. An Allied Control Commission in Romania was formed, dominated by the Soviets.

• A coalition government of Communists, Socialists, Liberals and the Ploughman’s front was created. In the winter of 1944/45 the Communists and their allies formed the National Democratic Front and encouraged the seizure of farms and Factories.

Romania 1944• In March 1945 Stalin

orchestrated a coup which resulted in a Communist dominated National Democratic Front Government.

Bulgaria 1944• When the Red Army arrived they

found a Communist revolution already underway.

• The ruling class was purged and over 10000 people were executed. The Unions and Police were infiltrated and the farms were seized by peasants. In autumn 1944 Stalin tried to pursue a moderate policy, where the Bulgarian Communists would tolerate some political opposition.

• This was not always easy as some local communists, sometimes backed by ACC Soviet officials wanted to gain power regardless of diplomatic consequences.

Hungary 1944• The Hungarians tried to negotiate

an armistice with Britain and the USA to avoid an occupation by the Soviets. In September 1944 Admiral Horthy appealed for a ceasefire with the Russians but was imprisoned by the Nazis who put the arrow cross party in charge.

• In December the Red Army arrived on the outskirts of Budapest. The Communist party was too weak to have a dominant role in politics so had to cooperate with the social democrats and other middle class parties.

Hungary 1944• In the December

1945 election the Communists only got 17% of the vote but they had three key positions in the provisional government.

Czechoslovakia 1944• Czechoslovakia was the friendliest

to the USSR since they felt betrayed by the Munich agreement of 1938. Stalin still annexed Ruthenia despite an alliance with the USSR.

• Through winter 1944-1945 the balance of power shifted from the democratic parties and the government in exile to the Czech Communist party under Klement Gottwald.

• Stalin forced Gottwald to accept Benes as president and Benes adopted a conciliatory policy and cooperated with the communists, allowing a harmony that Stalin could not achieve in Poland.

Yugoslavia 1944• Soviet forces linked up with Partisan

forces under Joseph Tito and attacked Belgrade on 14th October. The Partisans fought not just the Wehrmacht and Waffen SS but other, non-communist partisan groups.

• When an area was occupied they formed liberation committees which took orders from Tito rather than the government in exile.

• In 1944 the British supported Tito over other Partisan groups. Tito went on to liberate Albania in November. Stalin did however make it clear in January 1945 that Moscow would control foreign policy.

Western LiberationSHAEF

1944 Greece• Following the liberation in

October the British ordered the disbanding of the Communist partisans- Elas.

• A revolt (encouraged by Tito) broke out in December in Athens.

• Stalin stopped Tito from reinforcing the communists and the British defeated the communists to no objection from Stalin.

Italy 1943-44• Italy was occupied by the

British and Americans who refused Soviet involvement.

• Stalin gave the Communist party in Italy under Palmiro Togliatti instructions to not launch an uprising but to enter the democratic process.

• Togliatti managed this and became minister for justice in the new Italian government.

France 1944• In August 1944 De Gaulle established

an independent government with the intention of building a French led western European bloc.

• To counter the predominance of the Anglo Americans De Gaulle signed a treaty with Russia, signing the Franco-Soviet Treaty in December 1944.

• The French communists became a major force in French politics as they had been involved in the resistance. Thorez (head of the communists) was ordered to support the soviet-French alliance and create a left wing coalition with the socialists.

Liberation relation to the Cold War• The “Liberation” of Eastern

Europe was seen as Soviet expansionism by the west.

• Stalin paranoia and pragmatic actions implied he was more concerned for the USSR’s security than expanding.

• Also the exclusion of Stalin from the occupation of Italy meant that he could exclude the western allies from Eastern Europe.

Percentages Agreement• Stalin approved the note

with a tick.• The percentages concerned

spheres of influence in Eastern Europe.

• Churchill suggested the USSR would have 90% influence in Romania and 75% in Bulgaria whilst the UK would have 90% influence in Greece and each would have 50% influence in Hungary and Yugoslavia.

Percentage Agreement• What actually happened was

that Romania, Bulgaria and Hungary became one party communist countries under the influence of Moscow, Yugoslavia became an independent one party communist state and Greece fell into a civil war in which the British supported the government but the USSR did not support the communists.

• It was agreed at the fourth Moscow conference in 1944.

Yalta Conference• Yalta was the second post-

war conference.• The big 3 agreed to accept

nothing less than Germany’s unconditional surrender.

• Stalin agreed to enter the war against Japan.

• A committee of dismemberment of Germany was formed.

• The big 3 agreed on the establishing of ‘free and fair’ elections.

The Atomic Bomb• The US attempted to use the bomb to

intimidate the USSR but his didn’t work and only served to annoy Stalin.

• Roosevelt didn’t tell the soviets about the bomb.

• Truman mentioned the bomb at Potsdam though the extent to which this was ‘atomic diplomacy’ is debated.

• Some believe Truman dropped the bomb as a demonstration to the USSR.

• The bomb may have changed Truman’s attitude- He switched pro-soviet advisors like Davies to anti-communist advisors like Stimson or Byrnes.

Changes in leadership• Towards the end of WWII

Churchill was replaced by Clement Attlee as PM.

• Truman became president when Roosevelt died.

• Truman was more anti soviet than Roosevelt because he did not want to appear to be appeasing Stalin.

• Attlee failed to play a major part in confronting Stalin.

• It is argued Truman tried to use atomic diplomacy at Potsdam though this is disputed.

The Aims of the Big 3 in 1945

USSR Aims• The USSR wanted to secure its

western borders, retaining territories it got under the Molotov Ribbentrop pact.

• Stalin was primarily interested in the USSRs security; he ‘equated land with’ security according to J L Gaddis.

• The USSR had been invaded twice by Germany through Poland.

• Reparations from Germany, as war costs and to prevent Germany from becoming a major power.

USSR Aims• Stalin wanted to

create pro Soviet regimes in Eastern Europe.• He also wanted

reintegrate the Baltic states into the USSR.

USA Aims• The USA wanted access to

raw materials.• They wanted the freedom to

trade and export around the world.

• The USA wanted the creation of a UN.

• The UN would have a security council.

• The USA wanted to continue the wartime alliance into the post-war period.

UK Aims• Great Britain wanted

to preserve the British Empire.• They wanted to have

a friendly relationship with the USA and USSR.• Britain wanted to

stop Soviet expansion.

Potsdam Conference• Held in 17th July- 2nd August

1945.• Germany would be divided

into four occupation zones along with Berlin.

• Stalin held the advantage over newcomers to foreign diplomacy- Truman and Attlee.

• German borders would be redrawn and the populations outside Germany expelled.

• Some historians argue Truman attempted to use atomic diplomacy.

Russian control in Eastern Europe• By 1949 all Eastern European

countries with the exception of Yugoslavia were Stalinist regimes.

• These countries were usually dual police states with a regular police force and a secret police- eg. Volkspolizei and Stasi in the DRG and the ‘Civic Militia’ and Esbecja in Poland.

• Newspapers were controlled by the government- eg. The Neues Deutschland was the state newspaper for the DRG.

The Division of Germany• Germany was divided into

four occupation zones following the surrender of Nazi Germany.

• In the Soviet sector the USSR took reparations rather than reuniting Germany (in revenge and for security concerns).

• 3.6million Germans were expelled by the Polish from former parts of Germany that had become part Poland.

The situation in Europe in 1945• In 1945 Europe had been

divided into west and east- the Red Army had occupied Eastern Europe whilst SHAEF had liberated Western Europe.• Many civilians had been

displaced.• Some felt that war

between the USA and USSR in Europe was likely.

Bolshoi Theatre speech 1946• Stalin said that war

between west and east was inevitable because of the "capitalist development of the world economy”. • The speech is often

seen as the start of the cold war.

Kennan’s Long Telegram• 8000 word telegram detailing the

soviet Outlook.• The telegram was split into five

parts: Post war Outlook, Origins, official soviet projection, unofficial soviet projection and deductions from a US standpoint.

• The telegram said that the US and USSR were incompatible.

• The telegram explained that the USSR considered itself in a constant state of war with Capitalism.

• Encouraged Truman to take a hard line approach.

Iron Curtain Speech• March 5th 1946• Given at Fulton University.• Claimed that Europe had

been divided by an ‘iron curtain’ with Communist East one side and capitalist West the other.

• Soviets accused Churchill of being a ‘warmonger’.

• Truman was present at the speech.

The Truman Doctrine• American foreign policy to

prevent Soviet expansion.• Announce on March 12th

1947 to Congress by Truman.

• He pledged to contain the soviet threat to Greece and Turkey.

• The Doctrine pledged to help any country under threat of communism.

• It led to the 1949 formation of NATO.

The Marshall Plan• A package to aid Western

Europe.• The US gave $13bn to help

rebuild Western Europe following WWII.

• The plan began in 1948 and continued for four years.

• The goals included rebuilding war devastated regions and dismantling trade barriers.

• The final goal was to stop the spread of communism.

Czech Crisis 1948• Known as ‘Victorious

February’ to Communists.• The Communists seized power

in a coup backed by the Soviet Union.

• The crisis helped speed up the Marshall Plan

• The crisis was met with shock as the last democracy in Eastern Europe fell (for the second time in ten years).

• The fall of the last democracy completed the Soviet Eastern Bloc.

Berlin Blockade24th June 1948- 12th May 1949

Causes• Germany was divided into

four temporary occupation zones, the western ones benefitted from Marshal Aid but the East had been stripped of resources by the USSR.

• The UK/US zones delayed reparations to feed themselves, by 1948 the economic gap was embarrassing for the USSR.

Causes• Talks in December 1947

talks on administration broke up with no agreement.

• In June 1948 the deutsche mark was introduced in the West German area to provide stability.

• For fear of the East German zone being swamped by devalued Reichsmarks the Vozhd set up the Ostmark.

Events• 24th June 1948: Closure of all

road, canal and electrical links to West Berlin.

• June/July: The USAAF and RAF start flying supplies into Berlin.

• July/August 1948: Arrival of 60 B29 Super fortresses- though none of the 35 silver-plate variants (It was a bluff).

• 1st August: The Soviet authorities offer free food to anyone who registered their ration card in East Berlin.

• The blockade was lifted 12th May 1949.

Consequences• The blockade contributed to the

creation of NATO in April.• The blockade gave the west the

upper hand despite Stalin detonating an atomic bomb in 1949.

• The blockade ended any chance for a unified Germany and in August 1949 the FGR was set up.

• This was followed by the GDR in October.

• The blockade deepened the rift between the USSR and the west even further.

Korean War25th June 1950-27th July 1953

Causes• Division along the 38th Parallel

became North and South Korea.

• In the DPRK the new leader Kim Il-Sung wanted to invade the south to unify Korea as a communist nation.

• Initially Stalin was against an invasion, believing it was too soon. Several factors changed this:

• The USSR detonated its first atomic bomb in 1949.

Causes• The US had fully pulled out

of South Korea.• Soviet code breakers had

read messages indicating the USA did not feel that Korea was important enough for nuclear confrontation.

• Russia helped arm Sung.• Stalin gave approval to Sung

to invade on April 13th 1950.• Truman joined the war as

part of ‘containment’

Events

•The DPRK invaded South Korea on June 24th 1950.

•Truman ordered US support for the South and gained UN support, June 27th 1950.

•The US landed at Inchon on September 15th 1950.

•Pyongyang was seized by UN forces on October 19th 1950

•China entered the war on November 4th 1950

•Negotiations began on July 1951

•The armistice was signed March 1953

End of the War•Following the armistice a DMZ was agreed.•The DMZ ran along the 38th Parallel.•Armistice called for peace talks to be held.•No actual treaty signed- technically they are still at war.•North Korea claimed to have won the war.

Consequences• Demonstrated the

possibility for a proxy war to be fought between USA and USSR.• The war encouraged

the policy of containment.• Almost half POWs

didn’t return to DPRK.

Consequences• 54 000 US dead.• 3000 Other nations dead.• Mao called the campaign in

Korea a victory, the volunteers returned as heroes.

• 900,000 Chinese dead.• 3 Million Koreans killed,

wounded or missing.• 5 million Koreans homeless.• South Korea remained

outside Communist influence.

The Early Arms Race• The early arms race

consisted of one power building a nuclear bomb than the other power building a better bomb and so on.

The Red Scare/ McCarthyism• This was a period when the US

feared communist espionage.• Accusations were made without

any real evidence (a practice that has become known as McCarthyism.)

• Joseph McCarthy's involvement with the on going cultural phenomenon that would bear his name began with a speech he made on Lincoln Day, February 9, 1950, to the Republican Women's Club of Wheeling, West Virginia.

The Red Scare/ McCarthyism• He produced a piece of paper

which he claimed contained a list of known Communists working for the State Department.

• McCarthy is usually quoted as saying: "I have here in my hand a list of 205—a list of names that were made known to the Secretary of State as being members of the Communist Party and who nevertheless are still working and shaping policy in the State Department."

NSC 68• NSC 68 rejected roll

back and pressed for containment. • Issued by NSC April

14th 1950.• Called for significant

military spending in peacetime.

Salami Tactics• Eliminating

opposition bit by bit.

Post Stalin Thaw

Nikita Khrushchev• He was party secretary under

Stalin • Beria was arrested and executed after the East German revolt •Presented himself as a down to earth guy when compared to Molotov who was a bureaucrat•He began to isolate Molotov by transforming the country economically and politically •He started to process of ‘de-Stalinization’ in the USSR.

Nikita Khrushchev • Khrushchev implemented

destalinization when he assumed the leadership, this policy meant that Stalin’s crimes were ‘uncovered’ and denounced. It ended the period of fear that had gripped the Soviet Union under Stalin’s leadership. Khrushchev criticised Stalin in the 20th Party Congress though whilst his partially reduced tension with the west it alienated Mao’s China which called Khrushchev a ‘revisionist’, someone who was considered akin to heretic in communist circles.

• Khrushchev made peaceful coexistence foreign policy- this idea came from Malenokov who had mentioned it in a speech in 1952 although it was Molotov who PC originated with.

Nikita Khrushchev• The policy was based in the belief that

the downfall of capitalism, as outlined by Marx, was inevitable and so it was unnecessary to be always confrontational with the West. Peaceful coexistence was shown in the 1955 Austrian state treaty which prevented Austria being divided as Germany had.

• Yet Khrushchev only applied the policy when it suited him, as evidenced by the shooting down of Power’s U2 in 1960. Khrushchev chose to embarrass the USA, letting them develop a cover story involving a U2 painted as a scientific research plane and then revealing they had the tapes from the plane’s camera.

Nikita Khrushchev • Khrushchev’s involvement in the Cuban Missile Crisis

was key to its start and its resolving. Khrushchev again rejected peaceful coexistence and moved SS4 nuclear missiles into Cuba- putting them in range of every US city except Seattle. The action alarmed the USA (although they had similar missiles in Turkey and were not initially aware the missiles had nuclear warheads). Khrushchev did not abort the convoy even as the US Navy blockaded Cuba.

• When he began to negotiate with the White House Khrushchev initially said he would withdraw the missiles but then he sent a second telegram saying he would only do it if the US complied with his demands. The US complied and Khrushchev withdrew the missiles- although it came across as weakness in the USSR and Khrushchev was removed from office 1964.

• Khrushchev’s actions and decisions directed the course of the Cold War at it’s height, he contributed to the easing of tensions following Stalin’s death, the rising tension of the arms race and he took the USSR to the brink of nuclear war in the Cuban Missile Crisis. Peaceful coexistence was the approach adopted by the USSR even after his removal from office.

Peaceful Co-existence• The idea that the USSR

and USA could exist together- not necessarily as allies but not enemies.• Adopted by Molotov

from Malenkov.• It was assumed that the

USSR could just wait for the Capitalist USA to collapse as Marx predicted would happen.

The East German Revolt (1953)• 16th-17th June 1953• Began with a strike by workers but

turned into a revolt against the GDR.• The GDR turned to the USSR for

support and the revolt was crushed by 16 Soviet Divisions with 20,000 soldiers and 8,000 Volkspolizei.

• At least 55 people were killed but estimates go up to 165.

• Neues Deutschland stated that the revolution was the result of Western agencies.

• This is not an example of thaw since it is the GDR government deploying the armed forces to crush a revolution.

Foreign Ministers Conference (1954 )• The January/February

Conference in Berlin failed to reach any conclusions to Austria.• The Vienna

conference the following year agreed the Austrian State Treaty.

The Austrian State Treaty (May 1955) • Austria had been divided in zones

of occupation like Germany in 1945. It had looked as if it too would be divided with the US pumping Marshall aid into their zone and the USSR stripping their bit.

• Khrushchev decided neutral and united was better than divided. Eden had been attempting to get a demilitarised zone in the centre of Europe, and as part of this he got an agreement that occupation forces should be withdrawn from Austria as they had pledged themselves to remain neutral. Partition of Vienna

Partition of Austria

The Austrian State Treaty (May 1955)• This was a big concession by the

USSR (although the next day the Warsaw Pact officially came into existence). Khrushchev saw this as part of a more mature approach, saying he had swapped “boy pants for adult trousers”

• This is an example of thaw since the USSR is making a large concession by pulling out of Austria rather than forcing a division, as happened in Germany, Khrushchev decided neutral and united was better than divided.

• Demonstrated that Khrushchev was serious about peaceful coexistence.

Partition of Austria

Partition of Vienna

The Geneva Conference (July 1955) • For the first time in 10 years (since

Potsdam) the leaders of the USA, USSR, Britain and France sat together around a conference table to discuss the problem of Germany. There were high hopes for the “Geneva spirit”.

• There was no agreement, other than cultural exchanges. It was surprising that the meeting went ahead at all given that the FDR had joined NATO and the Warsaw Pact was set up in May 1955.

• However, the conversations were conducted in a friendly manner, and the division of Europe was treated as a diplomatic fait accompli.

The Geneva Conference (July 1955) • Various options illustrated the new approach,

eg. US suggestion that an “open skies” agreement would allow spy planes to verify arms agreements (rejected by USSR), Khrushchev suggesting a united but neutral Germany, made very difficult by the admission to NATO of the FGR in May, rejected by the US).

• Khrushchev suggested getting rid of NATO and the Warsaw pact and having a new collective security, rejected by the US.

• This friendliness over Germany was undermined in September when Khrushchev recognised the GDR, as a reassurance to Ulbricht following Adenauer’s visit to Moscow to discuss the last German prisoners of war.

• This recognition prompted the Hallstein Doctrine from the FGR, which said that if the GDR was recognised by any state other than the USSR the FDR would break diplomatic ties.

The Geneva Conference (July 1955)• The conference was an

example of thaw because although no agreement was reached the conference was a prime example of coexistence as it was the various countries coming together- not to agree anything as it had been during the Grand Alliance years but to reduce the hostility.

• It was agreed there would be a cultural exchange of art and scientists . (This was the only agreement)

FGR joins NATO• Joined on 9th May 1955.• Described as "a decisive turning

point in the history of our continent" by Halvard Lange. (Norwegian Foreign Minister.)

• A major reason for Germany's entry into the alliance was that without German manpower, it would have been impossible to field enough conventional forces to resist a Soviet invasion.

• Led to the creation of the Warsaw Pact.

• This was not thaw because it was essentially further dividing the sides into West NATO and East WTO.

Warsaw Pact (14th May 1955)• Formed 14th May 1955• “Treaty of Friendship, Co-

operation, and Mutual Assistance.”

• the military partner to the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CoMEcon)

• Partly due to FGR joining NATO but mainly due to USSR wanting to keep control of military forces in Eastern and Central Europe.

• Not an example of thaw because it is the USSR forming a military organisation in the face of a Western military organisation, again it is dividing Europe down east/west lines.

Hallstein Doctrine (22nd September 1955)• In Sept 1955 Khrushchev recognised

the GDR, as a reassurance following Adenauer’s visit to Moscow to discuss the last German prisoners of war. This recognition prompted the Hallstein Doctrine from the FGR , which said that if the GDR was recognised by any state other than the USSR the FGR would see the action as unfriendly and in a last resort would break diplomatic ties.

• This is not thaw because it is the Bonn State refusing to accept East Germany as a country and is threatening to break ties with any nation (barring the USSR) which is not peaceful coexistence.

Soviet withdrawal from Finland (January 1956) • Finland had been the USSR’s enemy during

WW2 (The Winter War 1939-40 and The Continuation War 1941-44). Under the terms of the Treaty of Paris signed in 1947, Finland had to pay $300m reparations, give land to the USSR and the USSR could lease the Porkkala region for 50 years. In 1956 Khrushchev managed to overrule Molotov and agree to leave Porkkala, which Khrushchev saw as having little significance but was a burden.

• This is a demonstration of thaw because it shows that Khrushchev was willing to leave the Finnish territory, although it appears to have been because Khrushchev thought Porkkala to be a burden so was in the USSR’s interest to withdraw.

Soviet withdrawal from Finland (January 1956)• The Soviet Army

withdrew in January.• Molotov attempted to

overrule the decision at a central committee meeting. • The soviets still exerted

influence-In 1962 they forced the withdrawal of a presidential candidate.

Polish Revolt (28th June 1956)• Demonstrations for better conditions

for workers began 28th June 1956 at Cegielski Factories in Poznan.

• The demonstrations were met with government repression- 400 Tanks and 10,000 soldiers of the Polish Peoples Army and Internal Security Corps.

• Death toll between 57 and >100 people including a 13 yr old boy. Hundreds more sustained injuries.

• This is clearly not an example of thaw because it is brutal repression of Polish Workers who only wanted better conditions- rather than the downfall of the government. It is a rather Stalinist approach to resistance.

Hungary (October 1956)• As part of the de-Stalinisation

program the Hungarian Communist party had been persuaded to replace Stalinist Rakosi with the more liberal Gero (Rakosi was informed that he was ill and needed treatment in Moscow).

• On 23rd Oct a large demonstration in Budapest in support of reform spiralled out of control. Khrushchev sent in 30, 000 troops backed by tanks and artillery.

• A new Government under Imre Nagy was formed with Soviet and Tito backing, which was even more reforming and independence minded.

Hungary (October 1956)• At first the USSR tried to stay

with the new ideas of more independence, launching on 30th Oct the “Declaration on the Principles of Development and Further Strengthening of Friendship and Co operation Between the USSR and Socialist Countries” which tried to set up a mutually agreed legal framework for USSR military bases in Eastern Europe, and then began to pull troops out of Hungary.

Hungary (October 1956) • However, Nagy, under pressure

from public opinion, then announced plans to withdraw from the Warsaw Pact and share power with some non communist parties. At the same time the United Kingdom and France invaded Egypt beginning the Suez crisis.

• Khrushchev was convinced that Nasser would lose and that the USSR would then have lost their major ally in the Middle East and had withdrawn from Hungary within a week: “…it will give a great boost to the Americans, English and French…they will perceive it as weakness”.

Hungary (October 1956)• On 4th Nov Soviet troops went into

Hungary and following fierce fighting (35, 000 dead, including Nagy who was executed) a new Government loyal to the USSR was set up under Kader. Despite Hungary’s rebels openly appealing for help from the West, Eisenhower made it clear that there was no question of US intervention to save Nagy. They feared that the USSR would prepare for war rather than give up Hungary.

• This is not an example of thaw because, although the Soviets initially attempted to negotiate as demonstrated by the “Declaration on the Principles of Development and Further Strengthening of Friendship and Co operation Between the USSR and Socialist Countries” , they still forcefully took control of Hungary.

Revolts used with Peaceful Coexistence.• The revolts of the

1950s show a lack of peaceful coexistence because maintaining the Eastern Bloc without any compromise served to further the divisions in Europe and so by implication the Cold War.

Khrushchev’s visit to the USA• In September 1959

Khrushchev visited the USA.• Although generally

successful, when Khrushchev was refused access to Disneyland he accused the US Government of hiding rockets there.

• When Khrushchev said “we will bury you.” it caused an incident- he was referring to the economy but some took it to be a threat.

The U2 Incident (May 1960)• This was used by Khrushchev to destroy the

Paris Peace Summit and discredit the USA. • The USSR shot down an American

reconnaissance (spy) plane and captured its pilot Gary Powers. However, such flights had been going on for some time (since 1956), and had been known about by the USSR for some time.

• Khrushchev’s change of heart had more to do with the development of opposition from within the Soviet block from the Chinese who bitterly opposed any improvements in relation with the USA, and the Military in the USSR who were alarmed by Khrushchev’s plan to cut the army and rely more on nuclear weapons. However, the flights had told the west that the USSR had only 4 ICBMs and no launching platforms.

The U2 Incident (May 1960)• This is also not an example of thaw

because it is Khrushchev destroying peace negotiations with the USA and taking a harder line against American reconnaissance flights, furthermore shooting down a US aircraft could have been perceived as an act of war so the shooting down the US plane certainly was not an example of thaw.

• Powers was tried by the Soviets, he was sentenced to 10 years, 3 years in prison and seven years of hard labour. In 1962 he was exchanged in Berlin.

The Arms Race

1945• Nazi Germany was defeated

in May and America and the USSR rushed to take Scientists from the Vergeltungswaffe 2 project.

• In August the US Operation Paperclip was set up to transport German and Nazi scientists to the USA (i.e Wernher Von Braun, a former SS Sturmbahnfuhrer)

1945• On July 16th 1945 the US

detonated the first ever nuclear weapon in the Trintiy test.

• In August the USAAF plane Enola Gay dropped an atomic bomb on the city of Hiroshima on the sixth of August and then Bockscar dropped one on Nagasaki on the ninth.

• This was the first and only use of nuclear weapons in warfare.

• It sent a message to the USSR that the USA held a nuclear monopoly.

1946• The Baruch plan

failed to limit nuclear weapons.• The USSR may have

construed the plan as an attempt to restrain them.

1948• Curtis LeMay was

appointed Commander of Strategic Air Command.

1949• On the 29th August

the USSR detonated their first nuclear bomb RDS-1.• The B-36 Peacemaker

aircraft enters US service.

1950• SAC began unauthorised

B-29 reconnaissance flights over the USSR.

• ‘Duck and cover’ video (https://archive.org/details/gov.ntis.ava11109vnb1) was released in the USA to advise children on what to do in a nuclear strike.

• Similar advice was given to Soviet children.

1951• On November the 1st

the USA tested a hydrogen bomb.

1953• On August 8th the

USSR exploded its first lithium bomb, RDS-6.

1954• The USA detonated

their first lithium bomb.• It detonated at 15

megatons instead of the expected 5.• The resulting fallout

killed Aikichi Kuboyama, radioman of the fishing boat ‘Lucky Dragon No.5’.

1955• The USA developed B-

52 Stratofortress intercontinental bomber.• At a Soviet air show

planes were painted differently for repeated flypasts- deceptions like this were called potemkinism.

1956• The TU-95 entered

service with the Soviet Armed Forces.

1957• On the 21st August the USSR

successfully fired the R-7 missile: the first ICBM.

• On the 5th October the USSR launched Sputnik (on a variation of the R7)

• On November 3rd Sputnik II was launched, carrying Laika into space.

• On November 7th Eisenhower received the Gaither report which warned of a missile gap.

1959• Fidel Castro seized

control of Cuba on January 1st.

1960• Polaris, the first

SLBM was launched by the USA in July.

1961• On April 12th Cosmonaut Yuri

Gagarin became the first man in space.

• The failed Bay of Pigs invasion happened 17th-19th April.

• On October 30th the USSR detonated the Tsar Bomb, the most powerful manmade explosion to date with a detonation of 50 megatons- and that was at a reduced level- it had the potential for 100 megatons.

1962• October saw the Cuban

Missile Crisis happen.• The Soviets moved

missiles to Cuba in 1962• The USA ‘quarantined’

Cuba.• Soviet supply ships

continued on their course.• Khrushchev offered to

withdraw the missiles.

1962• The following day he

demanded the US withdraw missiles from Turkey, also a U2 aircraft was shot down by an AA Battery but Kennedy held off attacking.

• The Kennedy administration ignored the second letter and accepted the first one, but privately agreed to remove missiles from Turkey.

• In 1962 the USA had 4000 warheads, the USSR 220.

1963• In June the hotline

telephone link was established and the Partial Test Ban Treaty.

Sino-Soviet relations

Chinese Civil War• 1st August 1927, The CCW

began.• 16th October 1934, The 6000

Long March began.• 20th December 1936, 2nd

United Front was formed.• 7th July 1937 The Japanese

Empire invaded China.• 26th June 1946 The CCW

resumed.• 1st October The PRC was

established.• 1st December 1949 The

remnants of the Guomindang fled to Taiwan.

Chairman Mao• Mao became leader

of the Chinese communists during the long march.• In 1958 Mao began

the Great Leap Forwards.• In 1966 Mao began

the ‘Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution’.

Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship, Alliance and Mutual Assistance• It was a formal alliance

between China and the USSR.• It gave economic and

technical aid to China.• It gave Soviet military

assistance if China was attacked and the USSR helped develop China’s air force.

• The USSR promised to return Manchuria to China.

• China agreed to ban all non-Soviet citizens from Manchuria as the USSR requested.

Korea and S-S relations• On 19th October 1950, China

sent troops to support the DPRK.• The USSR provided Mig-15

fighter jets and military advisors.• As a result, 900,000 Chinese died

though they succeeded in halting the allied advance and pushing them back to beyond the 38th Parallel.

• The war gave the alliance a sense of cooperation.

• The inequality of the relationship laid the foundations of the Sino-soviet split.

Taiwan and S-S relations• Taiwan was created after

the defeated Guomingdang fled the island in 1949.

• In 1954 the PLA began shelling the Guomingdang held Quemoy.

• The shelling ended after negotiations in 1955.

• In 1958 shelling resumed.• This was to test the USAs

commitment and stir up a revolutionary enthusiasm.

Sino-Soviet Split

S-S Split• Khrushchev had sought to

reconcile with Tito, Mao saw this as revisionism.

• Mao did not like Khrushchev’s policy of peaceful coexistence.

• Mao was offended by de-Stalinisation.

• Khrushchev was critical of the ‘great leap forward’.

• Khrushchev blamed Mao for splitting the Communists.

Geopolitics in the S-S Split• The long border

between the USSR and the PRC made disputes likely.• This happened at

Damnsky island on the Ussuri river In 1969.

Sino-US Rapprochment

Reasons Why: Ideological• Differences in sino-

soviet ideology alienated the USSR as an ally.

• Operation Danube worried the PRC.

• Mao believed the USA to be losing the capitalist-communist struggle.

• Mao wanted to be world leader of the Communist movement.

No.1

Communist

Reasons Why: Geopolitical• Rapprochement would

make the global map look better form the US perspective.

• The Vietnam War threatened greater US involvement in the region.

• Taiwan was still an issue.• South Korea and Japan

were hostile towards the PRC.

• Sino-Indian tensions.

Examples• Visit of the American

table tennis team to China in 1971.• Nixon’s visit to China

in February 1972.

Detente

Reasons for Détente: MAD• Fear of war: the CMC

showed the risk of a superpower confrontation.

Reasons for Détente: USSR• Under Brezhnev peaceful

coexistence was continued. Security remain the predominant factor of Soviet foreign policy- this wasn’t new (Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact).

• The USA appeared weaker then it had- the USSR had greater nuclear parity and the USA was flagging in Vietnam.

• Accommodating the USA would help the USSR stabilise control over Eastern Europe (Czech crisis 1968 and 1970 Gdansk (in Poland) strikes showed the USSR needed to stabilise control.

Reasons for Détente: USSR• The Sino-Soviet split meant

that the USSR wanted to keep the USA out of any war with China.

• Domestic problems with the economy had prevented a promised raising of living standards.

• Better relations would make western technology and grain supplies available.

• Stable western relations would enable the USSR to focus on the 3rd world.

Reasons for Détente: USA• Vietnam made the USA realise

they had limits.• Western Europe was showing

greater independence- De Gaulle withdrew from NATO in 1966.

• Détente would reduce the influence of the military-industrial complex and allow focus on social welfare. Riots in 1968 showed social issues needed tackling quickly.

• Détente would also allow a focus on commerce and financial services- areas in which W. Europe was becoming a rival.

Reasons for Détente: Europe• 1968 showed instability on

the East and West sides of the Iron Curtain- Operation Danube and a General strike in France.

• Willy Brandt (GFR Chancellor) promoted ‘Ostpolitik’.

• This encouraged other countries- establishment od friendly relations between France and Romania.

Economic factors in the 1970s• The OPEC Crisis 1973

concerned the US government as it affected the American’s western allies.

• In February 1974 the Washington Energy Conference harmonised western energy policies, reducing OPEC’s effect.

• The abolition of capital controls served to strengthen US capitalist institutions.

Soviet economic problems in the 1970s• Much of the USSR’s resources

were diverted to propping up the military industrial sector: 30 million workers out of 100 million workforce worked in the arms industry.

• Vast sums of money went to the Soviet’s allies: Vietnam received $1bn per year, Cuba received $4bn per year and $4bn worth of arms went to African satellite states like Ethiopia: Nearly ¾ of the USSR’s hard currency went into aid and arms for their allies.

Soviet Workforce 1970s

Soviet Workforce (Arms In-dustry)Soviet Workforce (Other In-dustry)

Soviet economic problems in the 1970s• The rigid planning of the

communist system made the economy inflexible.

• Soviet technology was falling behind the west despite Five Year Plan IX (1971-75)

• Emphasis on heavy goods meant consumer goods were in short supply.

• Agriculture was very inefficient compared to the rest of Europe. The USSR relied on $15bn worth of imported grain- some of which came from the USA.

SALT I, May 1972• ABM Treaty: USA and USSR agreed to

2 ABM systems each- 1 for their capital and 1 for their nuclear silos.

• Interim Treaty: The treaty would expire in 1977 and limited ICBMs and SLBMs.

• The USSR was allowed 1,618 ICBMs and 740 SLBMs the USA was allowed 1,054 ICBMs and 740 SLBMs.

• It did not account for MIRVs.• The Basic Principles Agreement: The

USA and USSR pledged to “do their upmost to avoid military confrontation.” Trade was encouraged.

• Nixon visited Moscow in 1972 and 74, Brezhnev visited Washington in 1973.

SALT II, 1974-1980• SALT II was outlined at the

1974 Vladivostok Summit between Brezhnev and Ford, setting equal limits on missile launchers and strategic bombers (Cruise missiles were omitted).

• Carter tried to renegotiate in 1977 to reduce the number of Soviet missiles- numbers were only agreed by 1979.

• It was signed in June 1979 in Vienna.

• SALT II was rejected by the Senate in 1980.

Helsinki Accords, 1975• Basket I: European

borders inviolable.• Basket II: Trade and

technology exchanges.• Basket III: Human

rights agreement.

Reasons for the end of Détente. • Increasing Soviet influence in

the 3rd world- Carter increased arms exports to countries like El Salvador to stop the Communist spread.

• Soviet violations of Basket III.• Rise of the Neoconservatives

in the USA.• Difficult negotiations with the

USSR (because of Brezhnev’s ailing health).

• 1979/80 Iran Hostage Crisis.

Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan December 24th 1979: Consequences• Carter was unwilling to let the

USSR get away with taking over another foreign country.

• Carter withdrew SALT II from the senate and encouraged a Western boycott of the 1980 Moscow Olympics.

• Carter increased arms spending with Presidential Directive 59 (authorising an increase in the US nuclear arsenal.)

• Thatcher supported the more strident US approach.

• Carter’s perceived weakness in the 1980 election contributed to his defeat by Reagan.