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Technical

Communication

fohn

M. Lannon

U n

iversity

of

Massachusetts,

Daftmouth

Laura

f.

Gurak

University

of Minnesota

Boston

Columbus lndianapolis

NewYork

San Francisco Upper

Saddle tuver

Amsterdam

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London Madrld

Milan Muni.h

paris

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Mexico

City

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HongKong

Seoul

Singapore Taipei

lokyo

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Lannon,

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Technical

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Lannon,

University

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Laura

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University ofMinnesota.

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1.

Technical

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What

ls Technical

Communication?

>

Define technical communication

>

Understand

that technical communication has

a

global

reach

>

Appreciate

the

role

of technical communication in most careers

>

ldentify the main features and aims of technical communication

)

Recognize

a

typical technical document

>

Observe

the challenges facing one communicator

at

work

WHAT

IS

TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION?

Technical

communication is

the exchange of information that helps people interact Technjcar

with technology and solve complex

problems.

Almost every day, we nrake

decisions

;oi:'-l'?tionr

or

nle

rctions that depend

r.rn

techni.al irtformation. When we in:,trrll

.rn1

ne*

*'r[

r"ir'.otsy

i.

device,

from a microwave oven

to

a new

printer,

it's the

setup

intbnnation

th.t we

our dailv

lives

look

for

as

soon

as

we

open the box.

Before we

opt for

the

latest

high-tech

medical

treatment, we learn

all

we can

about

its

benefits

and

risks. From

banking systems to

online

courses to business negotiations,

countless

aspects

ofdaily life

are

affected by

technology.

To interact with

technology in so many lvays, we need information that

is not only technically accurate but also easy to understancl and use.

Technical

communication

serves various needs

in

various

settings.

People

may Technicat

need to

perform

a task

(say,

assemble

a

new exercise machine), answer

a

question

(say,

::IT'iltlli:"

aboLrt

the safety

ofa flu shot), or

make a

decision

(say,

about

suspending

offshore

"rl

i;H;'":;::";"..

drilling). In the workplace, we are not only consumers

of technical conmunicirtion,

but

producers

as well. Any document or presentation $€ prepare

(memo,

letter, report,

Web

page,

PowerPoint) must

advance the

goals

ofour readers,

yiewers,

or listeners.

Figure

l.l

shows

a sampling of the kinds

of

technical cornmunication

yorr

might encounter

or

prepare,

either

on

the

job or

in

the

community.

Typical

Kinds

ol

Technical

Communication

MEMO PROCEDURES

a

project's

progress

rogulations

FIGURE 1.1 Technical Communication

Serves Various Needs

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Digiial

technology

is

no

substitute

for

human interaction

Ouestions

that

only

a

person

can

Digiral

communication

requires

attention

to style and

tone

Write to

a diverse

audience

CHAPTER 1 lntroduction toTechnical Communication

TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION

IS A

DIGITAL

AND A HUMAN ACTIVITY

In today's world of digital tools, we write and communicate more than ever:

emailing, using social networking

sites,

looking up

research and news

i

on the Web, video conferencing

with

colleagues, and so forth. We do all this

such speed that we often forget to

pay

attention to basic

professional

standards

workplace

communication.

For instance, we sometimes

use

an informal, chatty tone-appropriate for

but

not

for the

office-when

sending

a

workplace email.

Or

we

might

be

in a

and fail to notice our

use

of humor, which may

be

welcomed in

person

but

could

misunderstood in an email. An unclear or inaccurate email could

easily

cause

a

conflict or a safety error; a tone that seems inappropriate could

result

in

wasted

spent resolving the interpersonal situation instead

ofworking

on the

project.

Despite the power of digital technology, only humans can give meaning to

the

information

that

we convey and receive.

Information technology

is

no

for human

interaction.

People make information meaningfirl

by

thinking

and addressing

questions

that

no

computer can answer:

o

Which information

is

relevant

to this situation?

o

Can I veri& the accuracy of this source?

o

What

does

this information

mean?

o

What

action

does

it

suggest?

o

How

does

this information affect

me

or

my

colleagues?

.

With whom

should

I

share

it?

.

How might others interpret this information?

With so

much information

available

via the Web and other

sources,

no

one

can

afford to

"let

the data speak for themselves."

TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION REACHES

A GLOBAL AUDIENCE

Electronically linked, our global community shares social,

political, and financial

interests. Corporations are increasingly multinational, and diverse cultures exist within

individual nations. To connect with all readers, technical documents need to reflect

global and intercultural diversity. In his article,

"Culture

and

Communication,"

Robert G.

Hein

defines

culture and its impact on communication:

Our

accumulated knowledge

and

experiences, beliefs andvalues, attitudes and roles-

in other words, our cultures-shape

us

as individuals and

differentiate

us as a people.

Our

cultures, inbred

through family

life, religious

training, and

educational

and work

How

cultures

shape

communication

styles

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l'ith

for

be

iegal

all

Technical Communication ls Part

of

Most

Careers

experiences

.

. .

manifest

therrseh'es

. . .

in our thoughts and

feelings,

our actions and

reactions, and

our

vielvs

ofthe world.

Most

important lor

communicators, our cultures manifest themselves

in

our

information

needs

and our

styles

of communication .

. . our c\peclations as

to

how

information should be organized, what

should

be

included

iu its content, and how

it should

be expressed.

(125)

Cultures

difier over which

behaviors

seem

appropriate

for

social

interaction,

business

relationships,

contract negotiation, and communication practices.

An

effective communicatior.r style

in

one culture may be offensive elsewhere.

For

example,

one sun'e). of

top international

executives reveals

the following attitudes

toward

U.S.

communication style

(Wandycz

22 23):

.

Latin America:

"Americans

are

too straightforward,

too direct."

.

Eastern Europe:

"An

imperial tone

knorv best."

.

Southeast

Asia:

"'I'o

get rny respect,

American business

lpeople]

should know

sol.rething

about

Iour

cuiture]. But they don't."

.

Western

Europe:

"Americans

miss the srnall points."

.

Central

Europe:

"Americans tend to oversell themselves."

In additjon to being broadly accessible, any document prepared

for a

global

audi-

ence must reflect sensitivity to

cultural differences. For more on cross-cultural

communication,

see

Chapters

3 and

5.

TECHNICAL

COMMUNICATION IS

PART

OF

MOST

CAREERS

Whatever your

job

description,

expect to be evaluated, at least

in

part,

on

your

cornmunication

skills. At one

IBM

subsidiary,

for

example, 25 percent

of an

employee's evaluation is based on how effectively that person

shares

information

(Davenport 99). Even

ifyou

don't

anticipate

a

"writing"

career, expect to be

a

part-

time technical communicator, who rvill routinely face situations

such as

these:

.

As

a

medical

professionai,

psychologist,

social worker, or accountant, you will

keep precise records that are, increasir.rgly,

a

basis

for

legal

action.

.

As

a

scientist, you

will report

on

your

research and explain its significance.

.

As a trranager, you rvill rvrite

melllos,

personnel

evaluations,

inspection reports,

and

gir,e

oral preser.rtations.

r

As

a

lab

or seryice technician, you

will

keep daily activity records

and help

train colvorkers in installing, using, or servicing

equipment.

.

As an

attorney, you

r,r'ill research

and interpret

the law for clients.

It's

always

about how

fArnericans]

How

various

cultures

view tl.S.

communication

style

Most

professionaLs

serve as

pa

rt

time

technical

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as

(For

bro-

Focus

on the

reader,

not

the

writer

What

readers

expect

Main

Features

of Technical

Communication

broad

range

ofskills,

technical

communicators

often

enter related

fierds

such

as

pub

llshing,

magazine

editing,

Web

site

management,

television,

and

college

teaching.

MAIN

FEATURES

OF

TECHNICAL

COMMUNICATION

Aimost

any form

of

technical

communication

displays

certain

shared

features:

The

communication

is reader

centered,

accessible

and

efficient,

often produced

by

teams,

and

delivered

in

both

paper and

digital

versions.

Reader-Centered

Unlike poetry,

fiction,

or college

essays,

a

technical

document

rarelv

fbcuses

on

the writer's

personal

thoughts

and

feelings.

This

doesn't

mean

that your

document

should

have no personality (or

voice),

but it

does

mean

that

the

needs

ofyour

read

er'

come

first.

,

Workplace

readers

typically

are

interested

in

,,who

you

are,,only

to the

extent

that.th-ey

want

to krrow

what

you

have

done,

what

yo.,

.".o--.nj,

or

how you

speak

for your

company.

Reader-centered

documents

focus

on what people

need

to

learn,

do, or

decide.

Accessible

and

Efficient

Readers

expect

to find

the information

they

need

and

to

get questions

answered

cJearly. For

instance,

the document

shown

in

Figure

1.2

(see

page

9) is written

and

designed

so

that

a

nontechnical

audience

can

find

and foliori,

the information.

Instead

oflong

technical

passages,

the

content

is

presented

in

short

chunks,

in

the

fonn

of

questions

that readers

might

ask.

An

accessible

and

efficient

technical

document

includes

elements

such

as

those

displayed

in

Figure

1.2

and listed

below.

r

worthwhile

content-includes

all

(and

only)

the information

readers

need

r

sensible

organization-guides

the

reader

and

emphasizes

important

material

r readable

style-promotes

fluid

reading

and

accurate

understanding

r

effective

visuals-clarify

concepts

and relationships,

and

substitute

for words

whenever

possible

o

effective page

design-provides

heads,lists,

tlpe

styles,

white

space,

and

other

aids

to

navigation

.

supplements (abstract,

appendir,

glossary,

linked

pages,

and

so

on)_allow

readers

to focus

on

the

specific

parts

of

a long

document

that

are

relevant

to

their purpose

Accessible,

efficient

communication

is

no mere

abstract

notion:

In

the event

of

a lawsuit,

faulty

writing

is treated

Iike

any

other

faulty product.

If

your

inaccurate,

Make

documents

easy to

navigate

and understand

Elements

that

make

a document

accessible

and

efficient

Recognize

your

legal

accountability

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Prepare lor

Select

the

appropriate

mediLrm

or

combination of

med ia

CHAPTER

1 lntroduction

toTechnical

Communication

unclear, or

incomplete

information

leads to

injury,

damage,

or

loss,

you and

company or

organization

can be

held responsible.

NOTE Make

sure

your

message

is clear ond

straightforward

but do not oversim-

plify.

Information

designer Nathan Shedrof reminds us that,

while

clarity

makes

information easier to understand, simplicity

is hften responsible

for

the

'dumbing

down'

of information

rather tha

the

illumination

of

it"

(280).

The

"sound

bytes" that

often

masquerade

as

network

news reports serve

as

a

good

cqse

in

point,

Often

Produced by Teams

Technical documents are often

complex. Instead of being

produced

by a

writer, complex documents usually

are created

by

teams composed of

Web designers, engineers or scientists,

managers,

legal experts, and other

sionals.

The teams might be situated at one site

or location or distributed

different

job

sites,

time

zones, and countries.

Delivered in Paper and Digital

Versions

Technical documents

can be

delivered in

a

variety of media

such as

print

copy), CDs, Web

pages,

PDF documents,

ebooks,

podcasts,

and online

videos,

fact, distinctions between

print

and digital

communication

are

becoming

Figure

1.2

is

a

good example: The document is

in PDF format and can be read

the Web, downloaded

to your own computer

for

future

reading, or

printed

paper. Technical communicators must write well but must also be

able to

about

page design and media choices.

NOTE

In

mony coses,

print

documents

are still the

basis

for

much of o company\

communication.

Despite

continued

advances

in

electronic

communication,

paPet

is not

goingawaf.

PURPOSES

OF

TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION

Most forms of technical communication

address one of three

primary

(i)

to anticipate and answer

questions

(inform

your readers):

(2)

to enable

to

perform a task or follow

a

procedure

(instruct

your

readers);

or

(3)

to

people's

thinking

(persuade

your readers). Often, as

in Figure 1.2, these

will overlap.

Documents

that

lnform

Informational documents are designed to

inform-to

provide

information

answers

readers' questions clearly and efficiently.

Figure 1.2 is

primarily

mational.

It

is

designed

for

a

wide audience ofreaders

who

may

know little

the

topic.

What

purpose

or

combination of

purposes

will

your

document

serve?

Anticipate and

readers'questions

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Bar

graph

provides

an

informative

and

persuasive

function

Docume

Persuasion

(such

as a

ments

can

example, e

low amoun

PREPAR

Whether

y

scientist, te

nicating, th

CHAPTER

1 lntroduction

toTechnical

Communication

FIGURE

1.2

(Continued)

Documents that lnstruct

Instructional

documents help

people do something: assemble

a

new computer,

perform

CPR,

or, in the

case

of

Figure

1.2,

install and then

dispose

ofa fluorescent

light bulb

safely. On

page

2 ofthat document

the steps are

grouped

under

specific

headings and

written

using action

verbs

("unscrew

the light bulb by

its

base";

"seal

the bulb in two

plastic bags"). Cautions about

what

not

to do

appear as

needed

("Never

send

a

fluorescent

light bulb

. .

.

to

an

incinerator.").

for

this gro

Other

c

for example

ment and

s

workplace

ment r)?ica

and

describe

lnstructions

are

easy

to follow

Enable

your

readers to

perlorm

certain tasks

Tolal Mercury Emissions, CFLS and

lncandescent

6

a

e

fr

8:

E

1

0

mMftlnendes@nt

l3MttCFL

Because

CFLS

also

help to.educe

grcenhouse gasses,other

polutants

associaled

wilh

eeclricity

produciion

and landnllwasle

(becalse

the bubs asl lonser),lhey arc clearly

lhe environmenlal winner when compared to

traditional

ncandescent

I

ghl

bulbs.

What

orecautions should I take when

usino

CFLS

in mv home?

CFLS

are made or glass and can break if dropped

or

rcugh y

handled. Be

carelu

when remov

ng

the

bu b

ftom

is

packasins

installng it

or

replacing

it.

Always screw and

unscrewlhe

lighl

bub by

ts base

(notlhe glass),

and

never

forcefully bdistlhe

CFL

inlo a ioht socket Used

CFLS

shor d

be

disposed ot

prcpeny

(see

below).

what

should I do

with

a CFL

when it burns out?

EPA

recommends lhatconsumers lake actanlage of availabb

localrecyclng oplonsfor compact

fllorescenl

lishl

bulbs. EPA is

working

wilh

CFL

manufaclurers and major U.S.

letalers

to expand.ecyclins

and

disposal

opiions.

Cons mers

can

conlacl

the

r localmlnicpa

solidwasle agency direclly,orgo lo

or

Mearlhgl

1 .orc to dentify

local recyclinq options

lf

your

siate or local envkof

menia requlalory agency

permits

you

lo

pul

used

or broken

cFLs in

the

garbage

sealthe

bulb in lwo

pasllc

bags and

pul

t

into

lhe

outside

lrash

or

other

protected

outsde ocation,iorthenext

norrnallrash collection

Neve. send

a

fuorescenl light

bulb

orany other

mercury containing

producl

to an

lf

your

ENERGY

STAR

qualifled

CFL

producl

burns

oul belore

itshould.look

at

ihe CFL base lofind lhe

manufaclurer s name.Vis t the manlfacturcfs

web

srie

lo find lhe customer service conlacl

informat

on

to

nquire abouta

rerlnd or replacement. Manufaclurers

producing

ENERGY STAR

qualilied

CFLS arc rcquned to

oller at leasta hro-year lmiled

watranty

(covering

manufaclurer defects)ior

CFLS

used

al home

ln thefuture,

sava

you'recprpls

lo

doLurenl he d.le o'pur.hd'F.

8/17/2019 Lannon 1-34

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Preparing Etfective Technical Documents

Documents

that Persuade

Persuasion

encourages

people

to

take

a desired action. While some

documents

(such

as a sales

letter) are explicitly

persuasive, even the most technical

of

docu

ments

can have

an

implicitly

persuasive purpose. The bar graph in Figure

1.2,

for

example,

encourages

readers to use compact

fluorescent bulbs

by

showing

their

low amount

of mercury

emissions relative to traditional

light bulbs.

PREPARING

EFFECTIVE

TECHNICAL DOCUMENTS

Whether

you

are a

full-time communication

professional or an ettgineer.

nurse,

scientist,

technician,

legal expert, or anyone

whose

job

requires

writing

and

commu-

nicating,

the

main question

you

face

is

this:

"How

do I

prepare

the right document

for

this group ofreaders

and this

particular

situation?"

Other

chapters

in

this book

break dorvn the

process in more detail. In Chapter

2,

for

example,

you will learn about

analyzing the audience

and

purpose for

any

docu-

ment

and situation.

Later,

you

will see

examples ofdocument tlpes

tlpically used

in

workplace

environments. But regardless

of the

q?e,

producitrg

an

e{l-ective

docu-

ment

gpically

requires

that

you

complete

the four basic tasks depicted

in

Figure

1.3

and

described

on

page

12.

FIGURE

1.3 How

an

Effective Document

ls Produced

Motivate

your

readers

A

main

question

Vou

must

answer

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A workplace

CHAPTER 1 lntroduction toTechnical

Corrmunication

o

Deliver

inforrnalirr r:.;r.1"-;r earr

use

because different people

in

different

iriirrii i;1-', r

;

tr:l

::

,-1iltr-:ni

iltbrmation

needs.

(Chapter

2)

 

Ure persuasive

reasoning-because

people

often disagree

about what

the

inl(rnnation

means

and what

action should

be taken.

(Chapter

3)

.

Weigh the ethical

issues-because

unethical

communication lacks

credibility

and could alienate

readers.

(Chapter

4)

.

Practice

good

teamwork

because

working

in

teams

is

how

roughly

90 percent

of U.S.

workers

spend

some

part

of

their day

("People"

57).

(Chapter

5)

"Can

lprovide

exactly what

The

short cases that follow

illustrate

how

a tlpical

professional

confronts

these

tasks in

her own day

to

day communication

on the

job.

Providing

lnformation

Readers

Gan

Use

Sarah Burnes

was hired two

months

ago as a

chemical

engineer

for

lVillisun,

a

leading

maker

of cameras. multipurpose

film,

and

photographic

equipment,

Sarah's

first

major assignment is

to

evaluate

the

plant's incoming and

outgoing

water.

(Waterborne

contaminants

can taint film

during

production,

and the

produc-

tion

process

itself can

pollute

outgoing water.)

Management

wants

an

answer to

this

question:

How

often should

we change water

filters? The

filters are

expensive

and

hard to change, halting

production

for up to

a day at a time. The

company

wants as much

"mileage"

as

possible

from

these filters,

without

either incurring

government

fines

or tainting its

film

production.

Sarah

will

study endless

printouts

of

chemical analysis, review

currenl research

and

government

regulations,

do

some testing

of

her

own. and

consult with her

col-

leagues. When

she finally

determines

what

allthe data indicate,

Sarah

will

prepare

a

recommendation

report for her

bosses.

Later,

Sarah will

collaborate

with

the company

training manager

and

the

main-

lenance

supervisor

to

prepare

a manual, instructing

employees on how

to

check

and

change the filters.

To cut

publishing

costs, the

company has

asked

Sarah to

design and produce

this

manual using its desktop

publishing

system.

Sarah's report,

above all, needs

to be accurate;

otherwise, the

company gets

fined

or

lowers

production.

Once

she

has

processed

all the

information,

she faces

the

problem

ofgiving

readers

what they need:

How much explaining

should

I

do? How

will I

organize

the manual? Do

I

need

yisuals?

And.

so

on.

In other

situations,

Sarah

will

face

a

persuasion

problem

as well, for

example,

when decisions

must

be made or actions

taken

on the

basis of incomplete

or

inconclusive

facts

or conflicting interpretations

(Hauser

72).

In

these

instances,

5arah

will

seek

con>en.,us

lor her

view.

l\4illisun

and

the

port

for a

effluents

Sarah is on a

Agency

to

clean

Enraged

themselves

aG

analysis

dispersing

th€

contaminants

but

team

Sarah's

team

memb€r8

environmental

ommends

public

as

well

as she

In

the

differ

about

Pressures

and

son,

Sarah

Sarah's

way? Canl

To ensure

to

test ths

{ilters

ous

levels

to the

tested

fol

filters

zene

Assume

the issuo

8/17/2019 Lannon 1-34

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Preparing Effective Technical Documents

the

5./,.

u

n,

to

to

or

Being Percuasive

Millisun

and other electronics

producers

are located

on

the shores of

a

small

harbor, "can linftuence

the

port

for

a

major fishing fleet, For twenty

years,

these companies have

discharged

peop

e

to

see

^

effluents

containing

metal

compounds,

PCBS,

and

other toxins directly into the harbor.

lhrngsmvwav/

Sarah

is

on

a

multicompany team, assigned to work with the Environmental Protection

Agency

to

clean

up

the harbor. lMuch

of

the team's collaboration

occurs

via

email.

Enraged

local citizens are demanding immediate action, and

the

companies

themselv-.s

are anxious

to

end

this

public

relations nightmare. But

the

team's

anaiysis

reveals that any type of cleanup would stir up harbor sediment,

possibly

dispersing

the solution into surrounding waters and the atmosphere.

(fMany

of the

contaminants

can

be

airborne.)

Premature

action

might actually increase danger,

but

team members disagree on the degree of risk and on how to

proceed,

Sarah's

communication

here takes on a

persuasive

dimension:

She

and her

team

members

first

have to resolve

their own

disagreements

and

produce

an

environmental

impact

report that reflects

the

team's

consensus.

lf the report

rec-

ommends

further study. Sarah

will

have to

justify

the delays to her bosses and the

public

relations office, She

will

have

to

make other

people

understand the dangers

as well as

she does.

In the

preceding

case,

the

facts

are

neither

complete

nor

conclusive, and

views

differ

about what

these

facts mean. Sarah rvill have to balance the

various political

pressures and

make

a case

for her interpretation. Also,

as

company

spokesper-

son,

Sarah

rrill

be

expected to

protect

her company's interests. Some

elements

of

Sarah's

persuasion

problem: Are

other

interpretations

possible?

Is

there

a

better

way?

Can

I

expect

political

or

legal

fallout?

 

considerino the Erhical lssues

i

To

ensure compliance

with

OSHA1 standards

for worker safety, Sarah is

assigned

"can

lbe honesr

to

test the air

purification

system in Millisun's chemical division, After finding the

and-slill

keep

mv

i

filters hopelessly

clogged,

she

decides to test the air

quality

and

discovers

danger-

loD

ous

levels of benzene

ia

potent

carcinogen). She reports these findings in a memo

to the

production

manager,

with

an

urgent recommendation that all

employees be

tested

for benzene

poisoning.

The manager

phones

and tells Sarah to "have the

filters replaced," but says nothing at all about her

recommendation to

test

for

ben-

zene

poisoning.

Now

Sarah

has to decide what to do about this lack of response:

Assume the test is being handled, and bury the memo in some file cabinet? Raise

the issue again, and

risk

alienating

her boss?

Send copies

of her original memo to

someone else

who might take action?

I

Occupational Safet.v and

Health

Administration.

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CHAPTER

1 lntroduction

toTechnical

Communication

As

the

preceding case

illustrates,

Sarah

also

will have

to reckon

with

the ethical

in.rplications

of

her

writing,

with the

question of'doing

the

right

thingi'

For in-

stance,

Sarah

might

feel

pressured to overlook,

sugarcoat,

or

suppress

facts

that

would

be costly

or

embarrassing

to her company

Situations

that corrrPromise

truth and

fairness

present

the hardest

choices

of

all: remain

silent

and

look the other

way, or

speak

out and

risk being

fired Some

elements

of

Sarah's

ethics

problem:

Is

this

fair?

Who

might

benefit

or suJJerz'

What

other

consequences

could this

have?

In addition

to solving

these

various

problems' Sarah

has

to work

in a

team set-

ting:

Much ofher

writing

will be

produced in collaboration

with

others

(editors,

,ounng".r,

graphic artists),

and

her audience

will

extend

beyond

readers

from

her

own

culture.

GENERAL

l.

Write a

m

ment for t

help

you

b

Chapter

14

2.

Locate

a W

graduates

cal

knowle

skills

does

Discuss

yo

memo

to o

cation skills

or

a

similar

TEAM

Introducing

a

Class

members

To

help everyon

introduce

to

th

(That

person,

in

procedure:

a. Exchange

ma]or,

intended

five

b.

Take

c. Take

tion

lou

who

Working

on a Team

and

Thinking Globally

"Can

lconnect

with

all these

different

colleagues?"

Recent

mergers

have

transformed

Millisun

into a

multinational

corporation

with

branches

in

eleven countries.

all

connected

by an

intranet.

Sarah

can

expect to

collaborate

with coworkers

from

diverse

cultures

on research

and

development

and

with

government

agencies

of the

host countries

on

safety

issues.

patents

and

ticensing

rights,

product

liability

laws, and environmental

concerns.

Also, she

can

expect

to

confront

the

challenges

of

addressing

the

unique

needs

and expecta-

tions of

people

from

various

cultures

across

the

globe.

She will

need

to

be careful

about

how

she

writes

her daily

email status

reports,

for

example,

so that these

reports convey

respect

for cultural

differences.

ln order

to standardize

the sensitive

management

of the toxic,

volatile,

and even

explosive

chemicals

used

in

film

production,

Millisun

is developing

automated

procedures

for

quality

control,

troubleshooting'

and

emergency

response

to chem-

ical

leakage. Sarah

has been assigned

to a team

that is

preparing

computer-based

training

packages

and

instructional

videos

for all

personnel

involved

in Millisun's

chemica

I

management

worldwide.

As

a

further

complicatior.r,

Sarah

will

have to

develop

working

relatioltships

with

people she

has never

met

face-to-face,

people

from other

cultures,

and

people she

knows

only

via an electronic

medium.

For

Sarah

Butnes,

or any

of

us,

writing

is

a

Process

of

discovering

what

we

want

to say,

"a

way to

end

up

thinking something

[we]

couldn't

have started olrt

thinking"

(Elbow

15).

Throughout

this

process

in the workplace,

we

rarely

work

alone

but instead

collaborate

with

others

for information,

help in writing,

and

feedback.

8/17/2019 Lannon 1-34

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Projects

GENERAL

l. Write

a memo to your

boss,

justifying

reimburse

ment

for this

course.

Explain how the

course

will

help

you

become more effective on the

job. (See

Chapter 14

for memo

elements

and format.)

2.

Locate

a Web site for

an organization that hires

graduates

in

your

major. In addition

to techni

cal knowledge, what writhg and

communication

skills does

this organization

seek in

job

candidates?

Discuss

your

findings in

class

and write

a short

memo to

other

students,

e)elaining

what communi-

cation

skills

they require

in order

to

find ajob in

this

or

a similar organization.

TEAM

Introducing a

Classmate

Class members will work

together often this semester

To

help

everyone become acquainted, your

task is to

introduce to the

class

the person

seated

next to

you.

(That

person,

in turn, will

introduce you.) Follow

this

procedure:

a.

Exchange with your

neighbor

whatever

personal

information you

think

the

class needs:

background,

maior, career

plans, communication

needs of your

intended profession,

and so on. Each person

gets

five minutes

lo tell

her

or

his stor1.

b.

Take

careful notes;

ask

questions

if you

need to.

c. Take your

notes

home

and

select only

the

inforrna-

tion

you

think

the class

will find

useful.

d. Prepare a one-page

memo telling your

classmates

who this person

is.

(See

Chapter 14 for

memo

ele-

ments and

format.)

e. Ask your neighbor to

review

the memo for

accu-

racy; revise

as

needed.

f.

Present the

class

with

a

two-minute

oral

paraphrase

of your memo, and

submit a

copy

of

the memo

to

your instructor.

DIGITAL AND

SOCIAL MEDIA

With a

team of

2-3

other

students, visit

a

government

Web

site, such as the Food and Drug

Administra-

tion

<www.fda.gov>,

the Centers for Disease

Control

<www.cdc.gov>,

NASA

<www.nasa.gov>,

or the Envi-

ronmental Protection Agency <www.epa.gov>.

Locate

documents that

are

similar in purpose to Figure

Ll

in

this

chapter

Analyze

these

documents,

noting whether

they

are

available

in

PDF and

whether

they

conform to

one of the three purposes

(informative,

instructional,

persuasive)

described

in this

chapter or whether they

are a blend of these purposes.

Also, locate the Face-

book page for

NASA and compare it with

NASAi Web

site.

How

is

content presented

differently

on

each site?

Does

the Facebook page

appear to have

a different pur-

pose

from the

Web site? Ifso, what are the

differences?

GLOBAL

Look back at the

Sarah Burnes case in

this chapter.

Assume

that

you

are

about to

ioin

a

team at

work,

a

team

that has members from Ireland,

India,

China,

and the

United

States.

Use the Internet to learn what

you

can about

patterns

of communicationj

issues

to

Iook

for

include politeness,

turn taking, use of

first

names or titles,

and gender roles. Describe

your

find

ings

in

a

short memo to your instructor

8/17/2019 Lannon 1-34

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>

Understand

>

Picture

>

Consider

)

Consider

>

Pinpoint

>

ldentifythe

Analyze

You

r

Docu

ment's

Audience

and Purpose

Assess the Audience's

Tech nica

I

Backg rou

nd

ldentify

the Audience's

Cultu ral

Backg rou nd

Anticipate

Your Audience's

Prefe

rences

Guideiines lor Analyzing

You

r

Audience

and its

Use

of the Document

Develop

an

Audience

and

Use

Profile

Check

You

r

Document

for

Usability

Checklist: Usability

Projects

>U

All,T;lffii

"Audience

makes all the

difference. I write for

students,

small

groups

of scholars,

and

general

readers. I

pitch

grant proposals

to larger

groups

of

scholars, either nationally

(as

for the National

Endowment

for the Humanities)

or locally

(among

colleagues throughout

the disciplines

at

my

university). I

assume

my

audiences

are happy enough

to

listen to me at first,

but that to

keep

them

read-

ing I need

to

supply varying degrees

of

background

and explanation

pitched

to their

background and

familiarity

with the

subject matter."

-John

Bryant, Professor

docunent:

sonething,

Before

you

document

and

for example,

rnce

clients

sLrmelhrng-as

look

like. You

technician

pr0p]se

Preparing

al

rnd

the

Because

tailored

lo iB

problems,

8/17/2019 Lannon 1-34

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Meetinq

the Needs of Specific

Audiences

>

Understand

the

key concepts

of

"audience"

and

"purpose"

>

Picture

exactly who will use

your

document and why

)

Consider

your

audience's technical

background

)

Consider

the

audience's

cultural

background

>

Pinpoint

the

needs and

goals

of

your

audience

>

ldentify the length, format,

tone, and other

qualities your

audience

prefers

>

Understand the concept

of usability in relation to

audience and

purpose

/\J1

technical

communication

is intended for people

who

will

use

and

react

hto

the intormation.

These

people

are

considered

to

be the

audience for your

document: people

who are reading the material

in order to

do

something or

learn

something.

Before

you

start

writing,

you need

to identif'

precisely

who will

be

reading

the

document and

to

understand how

that

particular

audience

will

use

your

material.

For example,

you

rnight need

lo

dertne something

as

in

explaining

to

insur-

ance clients what the term

"variable

annuity" means.

You

might

need

to describe

something-as in

showing an architectural client what a new office

building will

look like. You might

need to explqin

something-as in

instructing

an auto repair

technician how

to

reprogram the

car's electronic ignition.

Or

you

might need

to

propose

something-as in arguing for

change

in your

company's

sick-leave policy.

Preparing

an effective document

requires systematic

analysis of

your

audience

and the ways in which they will

use

your

document

(Figure

2.1).

Because

people's

basic requirements vary,

every audience expects

a message

tailored to its

own specific interests, social

conventions,

ways

of

understanding

prublem

s,

lnd

in lb

rnrat

iorr needs.

Providing Useful lnfomation

How will I

give

readers

what

they

need?

FIGURE 2.1

Communicators Begin by

Considering Their Audience

enough

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Ouestions

for

analyzing

a

document's

audience

"What

is my

relationship with

this audience?"

"Who

is the main

audience

for this

document?"

"Who

else

is

likely

to

read it?"

CHAPTER 2 Meeting

the

Needs

of

Specific Audiences

ANALYZE

YOUR

DOCUMENT'S

AUDIENCE

AND

PURPOSE

Explore

all

you

can about

who will

use

your

document,

why

they

will

use

it,

and

how

they will

use

it.

Begin by

analyzing your

audience and

the

background,

needs,

and

preferences

of these readers.

Among

the

questions

you

must

answer

are these:

o Who

is the

main

audience for

this document?

o

Who else

is

likely to

read it?

.

What is your

relationship

with

the audience?

r

Are multiple

ty?es

of relationships

involved?

.

What

information

does

this audience

need?

o

How

familiar might

the audience

be

with

technical details?

o

Do

these readers

have

varying

levels

ofexpertise?

o

What culture

or cultures

does

your

audience represent?

.

How might

cultural

differences

shape

readers' expectations

and interpretations?

Answer

these

questions

by considering the

suggestions

that follow.

Primary

and

Secondary

Audiences

When

writing a technical

document, keep two audiences

in mind.

Most

documents

are geared

to an immediate

audience

ofreaders.

This is your

primary

audience.

For

instance,

a set

of instructions for installing

new email

software

for

an office

net-

work

might be

directed primarily

toward

the computer

support

staffwho

would

be

doing the installing.

But most

documents

also

have

a secondary

audience,

those

individuals

out_

side the immediate

circle

of

people

who

will

be

needing

the information

directly.

For

example,

a

secondary

audience

for

software

instructions

might

be

managers,

who

will

check to

see

if

the instructions comply

with

company

policy,

or lawyers,

who

will

make

sure the instructions meet

legal

standards.

Generally, primary

readers are decision makers

who

requested

the

document.

Secondary readers

are those who

will

carry out the

project,

who

will

advise

the

decision makers,

or who will

be

affected

by

this decision

in

some

way.

Your Relationship

to Your

Readers

Besides

identifying your

audience in

a

general

way, you

also need

to

understand

your

relationship

with everyone involved.

In your

situation,

will

the readers

be

su

perior

level

of

inside

o

decide

h

If

so,

pe

or

to

res

persuasiv

both

ins

documen

Purpos

Speil

out

pect

reade

o

What

o

What

o

What

Answer

th

follow.

Primary

Most

forms

cussed

in

C

will

affect

t

Many

primary

pu

audience

ho

companies

or

a

lawnmo

safety

hazar

with

the

mec

In

plann

target

audien

example

[ita

employees

o

procedures

p

program

mer

to install

the

virus

scans-"

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Analyze Your

Document's

Audience and Purpose

superiors, colleagues, or subordinates? Your answer

will

help you determine the

level of formality and authority to use

in

the document. Are the readers

from

inside

or outside

your

organization?

Answering

this

question

will

help

you

decide how

confidential

you

need

to

be. Do you know

the

readers

personally?

If

so,

perhaps

you can adopt

a

more informal

tone. Are they

likely

to welcome

or

to

resist

your information? Knowing

the answer

will

help

you

decide how

persuasive

you

need

to be. Are they

a

combination ofpeople from various levels,

both inside and outside the company? The answer

will

help you tailor your

document

for

various readers.

Purpose

of Your

Document

Spell

out

precisely

what

you

want your document to

accomplish and

how you

ex-

pect

readers to use it. In other words, determine

your purpose.

Ask these

questions:

.

What is the main purpose of the

document?

.

What

other

purpose

or

purposes

does the

document

serve?

o

What

will

readers

do with this information?

Answer

these

questions

by

considering the

suggestions

in the

sections

that

follow.

Primary

and

Secondary

Purposes

Most

forms

of technical communication fulfill a specific

primary purpose.

As dis-

cussed

in Chapter

l, the

primary purpose

(to

inform, to instruct, or to

persuade)

will affect the document's overall shape and substance.

Many documents have one

or

more

secondary

purposes. For example,

the

primary purpose

in a

gpical

instruction manual is to instruct,

that

is,

to teach an

audience how to assemble or

use

the

product. But for ethical

and

legal reasons,

companies also

want

people

to

use

the

product

safely.

A

manual

for

a

power

tool

or

a

lawnmower,

for instance, almost always begins with

a

page

that spells out

safety hazards and

precautions,

before instructing readers about how to

proceed

with the mechanism.

In

planning

your

document,

work from

a clear statement

that

identifies

the

target audience as well as

the document's

primary and

secondary

purposes.

For

example

[italics

added],

"The

purpose

of

my document is

to

inform

company

employees

ofthe

new

absentee

policy

and

to

instruct them

on

how to follow the

procedures

properly,"

or

"The

purpose

of my documentis to inform my division's

programmers

about the

new

antivirus software, as well as to instruct them onhow

to install the software and to

persuade

lhem of the importance of

running

weekly

virus scans-"

Ouestions

for

deciding

on

the

purpose

of

your

document

Write

a clear

purpose

statement

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"How

will

readers

use

this

Oueslions

for

anticipating

how

your

document

wiji

be used

CHAPTER

2

Meeting the Needs of Specific Audiences

lntended

Use of

the Document

In addition to determining purposes

of

a document

from your

own

perspective,

also consider how and why

it will

be used

by others. As you plan your

document,

answer

these

questions:

o

Do my

readers

simply want

to learn facts

or understand

concepts?

o

Will they

use

my information

in making

some

q?e

of

decision?

o

Will

people

act immediately

on the

information?

o

Do

they

need

step-by-step instructions?

o

In my audience's

view, what

is most

important

about

this document?

Besides

answering

these

questions,

try asking

members

ofyour audience

directly,

so

you

can

verify what they

want to know.

ASSESS

THE AUDIENCE'S

TECHNICAL

BACKGROUND

When

you

write for

a

close

acquaintance

(coworker,

engineering

colleague,

chem-

istry

professor

who reads your

lab reports,

or supervisor), you

adapt your

report

to

that person's

knowledge,

interests,

and needs. But

some audiences

are larger

and

less

defined

(say,

for a

journal

article,

a

computer

manual,

a set of first-aid

procedures,

or an

accident

report).

When you

have only a general

notion

about

your

audience's

background,

decide whether your

document

shotid l:e

highly

technical, semitechnical,

or nontechnical,

as

depicted in Figure 2.2.

Highly

Readers

need-w

reports

and

resu

For

cal term

findings

her

colle

knows

drrp), sh

main qu

Iem? Wh

"How

much

expeftise

does

this

aLrdience

possess?"

4

T

FIGURE

verst0n

ls

+

+

Just the

Facls & Figures

Exp a fed

Exp ained

rn

Srmp

est Terms

FIGURE 2.2

Deciding

on

a

Document

Level

ofTechnicality

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Expe rt

readers

need facts and

figures,

which

they can

interpret

for

themselves

Assess the Audience's

Technical Backoround

Highly Technical

Audience

Readers at

a

specialized

level

expect to

be

presentecl

the

facts

and figures they

need

rvithout long

explanations.

In

Figure

2.3, an emergency-roorn

physician

reports

to thc

patient's

doctor, who

needs

an exact record

of symptorns, trertmen[,

and resuits.

For her expert colleague,

this

physician

doesn't need

to dellne the

techni-

cal

terrns

(ptrlnonary

edema, sinus

rhythm).

Nor

does she need

to interpret

lab

findings

(,1+

protein,

eletated

serum

trdnsaminase).

She uses abbreviations

that

her

colleague

clearly

understands

(wbc,

B

UN, 5o/o D & W).llecause

her colleague

knorls all

about specific treatments

and

meclications

(de.fibrillation,

Xylocaine

d

p),

she

does not explaiir their

scientific bases. Her report

answers concisely

the

main questions

she

can anticipate fiom

this

particular

reader:

l4/ftat nas

tlrc

prob

leml What

was

the treatment?

What wera the results?

The

patient

was

brought to

the

ER by

ambulance at

1:00 A.M.,

September

27,

2010. The

patient

c0mplained

of

severe

chest

pains,

dyspnea, and vertigo.

Auscultation

and EKG revealed a massive

cardiac infarction

and

pulmonary

edema marked by

pronounced

cyanosis. Vital

signs: blood

pressure,

S0/40;

pulse,

140/min; respiration,

35/min. Lab:

wbc,

20,000; elevated serum

transaminase;

urea

nitrogen,60

mg%.

Urinalysis

showed 4+

protein

and

4+

granular

casts/field,

jndicating

acute

renal

failure

sec0ndary to

the

hypotension.

The

patient

received

10

mg of morphine stat, subcutaneously,

followed

by nasal oxygen and

5%

D

&

W

intravenously.

At 1:25

A.N,1. the

cardiac

monitor

recorded

an

irregular

sinus

rhlthm, indicating

left

ventricular

fibrillation.

The

patient

was defibrillated

stat and

given

a

50

mg

bolus of Xyiocaine

intravenously.

A

Xylocaine

drip

was

started,

and sodium

bicarbonate

administered

until

a normal

heartbeat

was established.

By

3:00

A.ra.,

the

oscilloscope was recording

a

normal

sinus rhythm.

As

the heartbeat

stabilized and cyanosis

diminished,

the

patient

received

5

cc of

Heparin intravenously,

to

be repeated

every six hours. By

5:00 A.M. the

BUN had

fallen t0

20 mg% and

vital

signs had srabilized:

btood

pressure,

110/60;

pulse,

105/min;

respiration,

22lmin. The

patient

was now

conscious

and responsive.

FIGURE 2.3

A

TechnicalVersion

of

an

EmergencyTreatment

Report This

version

is

written for medical

experts.

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CHAPTER

2

Meeting

the

Needs of Specific Audiences

Semitechnical

Audience

In certain

cases, readers

will

have some

technical background, but not as much as

the experts. For instance, first-year medical students have specialized knowledge,

but less than advanced students. Yet all medical students could be considered

semitechnical. Therefore, when you

write for

a semitechnical audience,

identify

the lowesf level of understanding in the group, and write to that level. Too much

explanation

is

better

than

too

little.

The partial

version of the

medical report

in Figure

2.4

might appear in

a

text-

book for medical or nursing students,

in a

report for

a

medical social worker, or

in

a monthly report for the hospital administration.

This version

explains

the raw

data

(highlighted

in yellow).

Exact dosages are

omitted because no one in this audience actually will be treating this patient. Normal

values

oflab

tests and

vital

signs, however, help readers

interpret

the

report

results.

Examination by

stethoscope

and

electrocardiogram

revealed a massive

Iailure

o{

the heart

muscle along

with tluid buildup

in

the

lungs,

which

produced

a

cyanotic

discoloration

oI

the lips

and

fingertips from lack

of

oxygen.

The

patient's

blood

pressure

at 80 mm Hg

(systolic)i40

mm Hg

(diastolic)was

dangerously below

its normal measure of 130/70.

A

pulse

rate

of

140/minute

was

almost

twice the

normal rate of

6G-80.

Respiration

at 35/minute

was

more than

twice the

normal rate

of

12-16.

Laboratory

blood tests

yielded

a

white

blood cell count o,f20,000/cu

mm

(normal

value;5.000

10,000),

indicating

a severe

inflammatory

response by

the

heart muscle. The elevated serum

transaminase

enzymes

{produced

in

quantity

only

when the

heart muscle

fail}

confirmed

thes

earlier

diaqnosis. A blood urea

nitrogen

level of

60

mg%

(normal

value:

12-16 mg%)

indicated that the

kidneys had

ceased to

lilter

out

metabolic

waste products.

The 4+

protein

and

casts

reported from

the urinalysis

(normal

value: 0) revealed

that the

kidney

tubules were degenerating

as

a

result

ol

the lowered

blood

pressure.

The

patient

immediately received

morphine

to

ease

the chest

pain,

Iollowed by oxygen t0 relieve strain on the cardiopulmonary system, and

an

intraven0us

solution

of dextrose and

water to

prevent

shock.

FIGURE

2.4

A

SemitechnicalVersion of an

EmergencyTreatment Report

This

version

is

written for readers who are not experts but who have some medical

backgrou

nd.

(Experts

know

would

be

espe

a typical

heart

Nontechni

People

with

n

of

complex

d

people

under

want enough

action.

They

left

unexplain

reading

it

on

The

nonte

written for

th

for

a docume

(highlighted

normal

value

and

why thes

lniormed

but

nonexpert

readers

need

enough

explanation to

understand

what

the

data mean

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Assess the

Audience's

Technical Background

(Experts

know the

normal values.)

Knowing

what

medications

the

patient

received

would

be

especially

important

in answering

this audience's

central question:

Hore

is

a

tfpical heart

attdck treated?

Nontechnical

Audience

People

with

no specialized

training

(lalpersons)

look

for the

big

picture

instead

of

complex

details. They

expect

technical data

to

be

translated

into

words most

people

understand.

La;persons

are

impatient

with abstract

theories,

but

they

want enough

background

to help them

make the

right

decision

or take the

right

action. They

are bored

or confused

by excessive

detail,

but frustrated

by raw

facts

left unexplained

or uninterpreted.

They expect

to understand

the

document

after

reading

it

only once.

The

nontechnical

version

ofthe medical

report

shown

in

Figure

2.5 might

be

written for

the

patient's

spouse

who

is

overseas on

business,

or

as

part

of a script

for

a documentary

about

emergency-room

treatment.

Nearly all interpretation

(highlighted

in

yellow),

this version

mentions no

specific

medications,lab

tests,

or

normal values.

It

merely

summarizes

events

and

briefly

explains what

they

mean

and why these

particular

treatments

were given.

Heart

sounds and

electrical

impulses

were

both

abnormal, indicating

a

massive

heart

aftack caused

by

failure

of

a large

part

ofthe

heart

muscle.

The

lungs

were

swollen with

fluid and the

lips

and

fingertips

showed

a

bluish

discoloration

from lack

of

oxygen.

Blood

pressure

was dangerously

Iow,

creating

the

risk of

shock.

pulse

and respiration

were

almost

twice

the normal rate,

indicating

that the

heart

and lungs

were

being overuuorked

in keeping

oxygenated

blood

circulating

lreely.

Blood

tests conlirmed

the

heart

attack

diagnosis

and

indjcated

that

waste

products

usually

filtered

out by the kidneys

were

building

up in

the

bloodstream.

Urine tests showed

that

the

kidneys

were failing

as a

result

of the lowered

blood

pressure.

The

patient

was

given

medication to

ease

the chest

pain,

oxyqen

to

ease

the strain

on

the heart

and lungs,

and

intravenous

solution

to

prevent

the

blood vessels

from

collapsing

and

causing irreversible

shock.

FIGURE 2.5

A NontechnicalVersion

of an EmergencyTreatment

Report

This

version

is

written for readers

who have

no

medical

background.

Laypersons

need

evertthing

translated into

terms

they

understand

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How

to tailor

a document

to

address

differenl

technlcal

backgrou

nds

Different

readers

have

differing

information

needs

CHAPTER

2

Meeting

the

Needs of Specific

Audiences

In

a

different

situation,

however

(say,

a malpractice

trial),

the

lalperson

jury

would

require detailed

technical

information

about

medication and

treatnent

Such

a report

would naturally

be much

longer-basically a short

coutse

in emet-

gency coronary

treatment.

Audiences

with

Varying Technical

Backgrounds

The

technical

background oflarge

and diverse

audiences can be

variable and

hard

to

pin

down.

When

you must write for

audiences at different

levels,

follow

these

suggestions:

r

If the

document

is short

(a

letter, memo,

or

anything less

than

two

pages),

rewrite it at

different levels

for different

backgrounds.

o

Ifthe

document

exceeds

two

pages, address the

prirnary

readers.

Then

provide

appendices

for

secondary

readers.

Transmittal

letters, informative

abstracts,

and

glossaries can also

help nonexperts

understand

a

highly

technical

report.

(See

Chapter

22 for use and

preparation ofappendices

and other supplements.)

For an

illustration

ofthese

differences, consider

the

following

case

In

the

p

lzean, where

sions. Unles

will

be worth

Web-Bas

Web

pages

Figure

2.6

a

IDENTIFY

BACKGRO

Within Nor

are culturallv

complexity

explained.

S

cultures pre

friendly,

enc

North

A

to

the

point,

more ambigu

Martin

and

C

"What

do these

findinqs

mean?"

"How

did

you

arrlve

at these

conclusions?"

Tailoring

a

Single

Document lor

Multiple

Audiences

You are a

metallurgical

engineer

in

an automotive

consulting

firm.

Your supervisor

has asked

you

to test the fractured

rear axle of a

2009 Delphi

pickup

truck

recently

involved

in

a

fatal accident.

Your assignment

is to determine

whether

the

fractured

axle caused

or resulted

from lhe accident.

After testing

the hardness

and chemical

composition of

the metal and

examin-

ing

microscopic

photographs

of

the fractured

surfaces

(fractographs), you

con-

clude that the

fracture resulted

from stress

that developed

during the

accident.

Now

you

must report

your procedure

and

your

findings

to

a

variety

of readers

Because

your

report

may serve

as courtroom

evidence,

you

must

explain

your

findings in

meticulous detail.

But

your

primary

readers

(the

decision

makers)

will

be nonspecialists

(the

attorneys

who have

requested the

report.

insurance

representatives,

possibly

a

judge and

a

jury),

so

you

must translate

your

report,

explaining

the

principles

behind the

various tests,

defining specialized

terms such

as

"chevron

marks,"

"shrinkage

cavities," and

"dimpled

core," and showing

the

signiflcance

of these

features as evidence.

Secondary

readers will

include

your

supervisor

and outside

consulting

engi-

neers

who

will

be evaluating

your

test

procedures

and

assessing

the validity of

your

findings. Consultants

will

be focusing on

various

parts

of

your

report,

to

verify that

your

procedure

has been exact and

faultless

For this

group,

you

will

have

to include appendices

spelling out

the technical

details of

your

analysis:

how hardness

testing of the axle's

case and

core indicated

that the axle

had been

properly

carburized;

howchemical analysis

ruled out

the

possibility

that the manu-

facturer had used

inferior alloys;

how lig ht-microscopic

fractographs

revealed

that

the origin

of

the fracture,

its direction of

propagation,

and

the

point

of

final rupture

indicated

a ductile

fast

fracture,

not

one

caused

by torsional

fatigue

itate

to

ask f

disagreement

is

very difficu

(Rowland

47)

Consider

situation.

and

ANTICIPA

Readers

details,

the

ate

tone, as

wel

Length

The

length

learn

about

tions,

or

do

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Anticipate

Your

Aodience's

Preferences

In

the

previous scenario, primary readers need to

know

what

your

findings

nean, whereas secondary

readers

need to know how

you

arrived at

your

conclu-

slors.

Unless it serves

the

needs

of

each

group independently, your information

rvillbe worthless.

Web-Based

Documents for Multiple Audiences

\\'eb

pages

are

ideal

for

displaying and linking various levels

of

information.

Figure 2.6

accommodates different

levels of interest

and

expertise.

IDENTIFY THE

AUDIENCE'S

CULTURAL

BACKGROUND

Within North America and beyond, intbrmation needs and

preferences

often

are

culturally determined. For exanrple, certain cultures value thoroughness and

conplexity

in

their documents, with lists of data and every detail included and

explained. Some

cultures

place

high

value

on

a

formal,

businesslike

tone.

Other

cultures

pref-er multiple

perspectives

on

the rnaterial, lots

of

graphics, and a

friendly, encouraging tone

(Hein

125-26).

North Anrerican

business

culture

is

accustomed to

"plain

talk" that

gets

right

to the

point,

but Eastern cultures tend to consider this rude,

preferring

indirect,

more ambiguous

messages,

which leave interpretation up to the reader

(Leki

151;

Martin and

Chaney

276-77). To avoid seeming

impolite,

some

people

might

hes-

itate to ask for clarification

or

additional information.

ln

certain

cultures.

even

disagreement

or

refusal rnight be

expressed

as

"We

will

do our

best" or

"This

is very

difficult"

instead of

"No"

to avoid oftending and to

preserve harmony

(Rowland

47).

Consider how cultural differences nright create misunderstanding

in

your

situation, and seek an approach that bridges these diffbrences.

ANTICIPATE YOUR AUDIENCE'S

PREFERENGES

Readers

approach any document with certain preferences: its

desired

length and

details, the format

and

medium in which

it

should

be

presented,

and

the appropri-

ate

tone,

as well as

deadline and budget expectations.

Length

and

Details

The length

and amount of detail

in

your

document depends on what

you

can

learn about

your

audience's needs. Were

you

asked

to

"keep

it

short" or to

"be

comprehensive"? Are

people

nrore interested in conclusions and recommenda-

tions,

or

do

they

want

everlthing

spelled

out?

"What

cultural

differences ex ist

in

th

is audience,

and

how

can

I bridge those

differences?

"

Give readers

only

what they need

8/17/2019 Lannon 1-34

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lannon-1-34 26/34

Links

of

general

interest

Meeting

the

Needs of Specific Audiences

FIGURE 2.6 AWeb

Page Designed for

Multiple Audiences This

page

addresses

diverse

groups

including

non-English

speakers

(links

listed under Fesources

ForYoul.

For science

professionals

and other specialized

readers, links include

Biotechnology

and Science and Research.

Source:

U-S. Food

and

Drug

Administration <www.fda.gov/food>.

Format

a

Does

your

report with

pages

533-3

lists) make

tion medium

Tone

The tone o

image that

a

business

l

company

d

the upcorn

both

the

i

and reader.

forward

yo

tone

used

i

tious

("1

am

At the

encouraging

employees

resentful.

In

ing

to

peop

Always

avo

and emails

Due

Dat

Does your

ls there a b

schedule

of

too

long

to

Budget

Does your

save

money

the docume

sion to use

binding,

an

Links

to

specific

topic areas

of

interest

Links

to various

audiences'needs

U,S, Food and Druq Administration

A z lndex

s€arch

l@

HonE

I

F@d Drugs

I

Medical

Devrces I Vacc

nes.

Blood A

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Fadialion.Eniliing

Produ.ls

I

Tobacco

Producls

Food

nshare

o€marrhE

6;j#,",.

E Er

chanse

Fofr

s ze

ffi

ydroll|:ed Vegetable

Prolein Product

Recatls

salmonella risk

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Foodsafety.gov

FOA Basics

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your

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galeway

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lederal

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College

Pa.k.lVD

207,10

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s

tol@hmlogy

policy.

consuhation

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reqlested

iniormarion. including

Food Oeiense

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FDA works to

reducelherisk

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Food

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inleresr

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inqredients

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substances

Producl-speilic

inlormation

on sealood, ku ts.

vegelables. milk,

canne

ioods. and infani

Guldancei Compllance

&

Fegularory

Food codpliance

programs.

label ng

guides,

and olher

auidarce

deumenls

lnternarlonal

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lnle.naloml

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expodlnq and

immrlinc

inlo

lhe U.S

.

lrade

agreenenls

Labeling

reqLnements ior

loods under the

Federal

Food. Drug and

Cosmelic

Acl.

Press Gleases. upcom

ng

meetings

For

consume.s. heallh

carc

prolessionals.

Fesearch

areas. laboralory m6thods. selected

scientilic

publicalions

and

prGentatons

News

and Announcements

.

April30,2010 FDATakes

Sleps

lo lncreaseSaloty

ol

Foods

.

April 01

,

2010 Federal

Govehmenl

Seeks

Permanent

lnjuncllon Againsl

Texas Egg Boll Manulacturer

. March

27. 2010

Public

Heallh Agercies Collaborate to

Prevenl Furlher lllnesses

tom

Norovirus Outbreak

Associared

wirh Oysters

R&6ntly

Haruesled t

om Area Near

.

March

26.2010 Publc

HeathAgencies

Wam ol

Oulbreaks

Beialed to Drinking Faw Milk

.

March

26.2010

FDA

Tal6s

Aclion Aqainst

New

Yolk

Dairy

8/17/2019 Lannon 1-34

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Anticipate

Your

Audience's

PreJerences

Format

and

Medium

Does

your

audience expect a letter, a meflo, a

short

report,

or

a long, formal

report

with

supplements

(title

page,

table

of

contents, appendixes,

and so

on-see

pages

533-36)? Can visuals and

page

layout

(charts,

graphs,

drawings, headings,

Iists)

make the material more

accessible?

In this instance, is

the

proper

distribu-

tion medir:m via hard copy, email

or

attachment, Web

posting,

or other

means?

Tone

'fhe

tone

of

yor:r

writing

conveys an image

of

who you are:

your

persona-the

image

that comes through between the lines.'Ione

can range

from formal

(as

in

a business letter to a client) to semiformal

(as

in a memo

announcing a change in

company dress

policy)

to informal

(as

in

a

quick

email to

colleagues

rnnouncing

the upcoming compirny

picnic).

Workplace readers expect a tone that reflects

both

the

in.rportance

or urgency of the topic and the relationship

between writer

and

reader. For

example, the letter to a client that

begins

with

"We

irre

pleased

to

tbrward

your

annual investment statement"

is

probably appropriate. But

a similar

tone

used

in

the memo

about the

company picnic

would

seeni

stufty

and preten-

tious

("1

am

pleased

to announce...").

At

the

same

time, the tone

of

your rvriting

can range from friendly and

encouraging to distant and hostile.

For example,

a bossy

tone in

a

memo to your

ernployees

("lt

would behoove

you

to...") would make them feel

demeaned and

resentful. In short, your

tone

is

effective when you sound like

a

likable person

talk-

ing

to

people in

a workplace setting.

The

noli<tn

of

workplace

setting

is

key here:

Ahvays

avoid the kind offree-for-all tone that

is

comnlon in

tweets, text ntessages,

and emails irmong casual

friends

outside

of

work.

Due

Date

and

Timing

Does

your

document

have

a

deadline?

Workplace documents almost

always

do-

ls

ther-e

a

best

time

to

subnit

it? Do you

need to break down the

deadline

into

a

schedule

of

rr.rilestones?

Will

any

of your infbrmation

become

outdated if

you

wait

too

long

to complete the document?

Budget

l)oes

your

document have

a

production

budget? Ifso, how

much? Where can you

save money? How much time

can

your

company afford to allot you for creating

the document or Web

page?

How

much money can you spend obtainirg permis,

sion to use rnaterials

fron

other

sources?

How nuch

can

you

spend on

printing,

binding,

and

distributing

your

document?

Decide

how

your

document will

look and

will

be

distributed

Decide on

the

appropriate

tone

for

your

situation

to submit the

Calculate

the

8/17/2019 Lannon 1-34

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CHAPTER 2

Meeting the

Needs

ofSpecificAudiences

NafE

Although

a detailed analysis can tell you a great

deal,

rarely

is it

possible

to

pin

down an audience

with certainty-especidlly

when the audience is large and diverse.

B{ore

submitting

q

fndl

documenL

examirc

every ospect,

trying

to

anticipate sPeciJic audie ce

questiol1s

or

objections.

Bctter

yet, ask

selected readers

for

feeclback

on

early

drafs.

>

Picture exactly what

these readers need and how they expect

to

use

your docu-

ment. Whether

it's the company

president

or the

person next to you in

class,

that

person

has

specific concerns and

information needs. Your readers may

need to

complete

a

task, solve

a

problem, make a decision, evaluate your

performance, or

take

a

stand on

an issue. Think carefully about exactly

what you want your read-

ers

to be

able

to do.

>

Learn all

you

can

about who will use

your

document.

Are your primary readers

superiors,

colleagues,

or subordinates?

Are

they

inside or outside your organiza

tion? Who

else

might be

interested or affected? What do readers already

know

about this topic?

How much do they care? Are they

likely to welcome or reject

your

information?

>

In

planning your document, work

fron

a clear

statement of

audience and

purpose. For example,

"The

purpose

of

my document is to

Idescribe

using

verbs:

persuade,

instruct, inform) the target

audience

fidentifu

precisely:

colleagues,

supe

riors, clientsl."

>

Consider

your

audience's

technical background. Colleagues

who

speak

your

technical language

will understand raw data. Managers

who have

limited

techni-

cal

knowledge expect interpretations and

explanations. Clients

with little or

no

technical background want to

know what this information means to them,

per-

sonally

(to

their health,

pocketbook, safety). However,

none

of

these

generaliza'

tions might apply

to your situation. When in doubt,

aim for low technicality.

>

When you don't

know

exactly

who will be reading

your document,

picture

the "general

reader." A nontechnical audience

will

expect complex

information

to be explained in ways that

have meaning

for

them, personally, and

insofar as

possible in everyday

language.

(For

example, refer to

"heart

and lungs"

instead

of

"cardiopulmonary

system." Instead

of

"A

diesel

engine

generates l0

BTUs

per gallon

of

fuel compared with 8 BTUs

generated by a conventional

gasoline

engine,"

write

"A

diesel engine

yields 25 percent better

gas

mileage than

its

gas-

burning counterpart.")

>

Consider readers' cultural backgrounds.

Identiff as

closely

as

possible your

au-

dience's specific

customs and values. How might

cultural differences

play

a

role

in

readers' interpretation of

your

presentation?

Anticipate

bad,

will

s

Should

yo

informatio

ofhand.

>

Anticipat

ers

have

should

I

form

this

How

muc

instead

o

your

pos

>

Anticipat

mat,

med

tion

allow

DEVELOP

In

order

to

f

cussed

in

this

Sheet

shown

sheet as

need

Assume

that

out

of

your

work

load,

As

you

to

This

one-

or

major

and

tional

Ada

pt

some

Audience

Audienco

>

Who

>

Any

8/17/2019 Lannon 1-34

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lannon-1-34 29/34

pin

to

or

Develop

an Audience

and

Use

profile

>

Anticipate your

audience's reactions.

If

the topic is

controversial

or the news

is

bad, will

some

people

resist your

message?

Will

some feel

threatened

or offended?

Should

you

be

bold

and outspoken

or tread lightly?

No matter

how accurate

yorr

information

or how

sensible

your ideas,

an alienated

audience

will

reject them

out

ofhand.

>

Anticipate your

audience's questions.

Based

on their

needs and

concerns, read-

ers

have questions

such

as these:

What

is the purpose

of this

document?

Why

should I read

it? What

happened,

and why? Who

was involved?

How

do

I

per

form this

task?

How

did

you

perform

it? What

action should

be taken,

and why?

How

much will it

cost? What

are the risks?

Give readers

what they

need to know,

instead

of what

they already know.

Give them

enough

material

to understand

your position

and to

react

appropriately.

>

Anticipate

your audience's

preferences.

Try

to

pinpoint

the length,

detail, for-

mat, medium,

tone, timing,

and budget

preferred

by this audience.

As the

situa-

tion allows, adjust

your docurnent

accordingly.

DEVELOP

AN AUDIENCE

AND

USE

PROFILE

In order to focus

sharply

on

your

audience, purpose,

and the

ntany factors

dis-

cussed

in this

chapter,

develop

your

own version

of the Audience

and

Use

profile

Sheet shou'n

in Figure

2.7

(page

3t)

for any

document you prepare.

Modifi

this

sheet

as needed to

suit

your

own

situation,

as

shown in the

following

case.

f

Developing

an Audience

and

use

profile

Assume

that

you

face

this situation;

First-year

students increasingly

are dropping

out of

your

major

because

of low

grades

or stress

or inability

to keep up

with the

work

load.

As part of

your

work-study duties,

your

department chairperson

asks

you

to

prepare

a "Survival

Guide" for next

year's

incoming

students to the

major.

Thjs

one- or two-page

memo

should focus

on the challenges

and

the

pitfalls

of the

major and

should include

a brief motivational

section

along with whatever

addi-

tional information

you

decide

readers need.

Adapt

Figure 2.7

(page

31)to

develop

your

audience

and use

profile.

Here

are

some

possible

responses:

Audience

and Use

Prolile

Audience and Purpose

>

Who is

my

primary

audienceT

lncoming

students

to the major

>

Any

secondary

audiences?

Department

faculty

8/17/2019 Lannon 1-34

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CHAPIER 2 Meeting the Needs oI Specific Audiences

>

What is

my relationship with

everyone involved? Primary

audience: student

col-

leagues who

don't

know me very

well; secondary audience:

major

faculty,

who

must approve the

final

document.

>

What is the

purpose

of

the

document?This

document has multiple

purposes:

to

inform, instruct,

and

persuade.

>

Audience

and

purpose

statement:fhe

purpose

of this document is

to

explain

to

incoming

students the challenges and

pitfalls

of

year

1 of our major,

I

will

show

how

the

number of dropouts

has increased, describe

what

seems

to

go wrong

and explain why, suggest steps

for

avoiding common mistakes, and emphasize

the benefits of enduring the first

year.

>

lntended

use of this document:fo

enable

students

to craft their own survival

plan

based

on

the information,

advice, and encouragement

provided

in

the

document.

>

lnformation needs.

lncoming students know very little

about

this

topic. They

need everything spelled

out.

>

Technical background: ln regard

to this topic, the

primary

audience

can be con-

sidered laypersons.

>

Cultural considerations:

fhe

document

will

refer readers

from other

countries

and cultures

{exchange

students,

nonnative

speakers

of

English,

and so on) to

designated advisors

for additional

assistance.

>

Probable questions (along

with

others you

anticipate):

"How big

is

the

prob-

lem?" "How

can

this

problem

affect me

personally?"

"How

much time

will I

need

to devote to homework?" "How should I budget my

time?"

"Can

I

squeeze in a

part-time

iob?"

"Why

do so many students drop out?" "Whom

should

I

see if I'm

having a

problem?"

>

Probable

reaction to document: Most

readers

should welcome this information

and take it

seriously.

However,

some students who don't know the

meaning

of

failure might feel

patronized

or

offended.

Some

faculty

might resent any

sugges-

tions that

courses

are

too demanding.

Audience Preferences

about

the

Document

>

Length

and detail:

Because

the

documenl

was requested by the

department

and

not

by

the

primary

audience, I can't expect

students to

tolerate more than a

page

or

two.

>

Format and medium: Paper memo mailed to

each

student

(along

with

a

briel

welcoming

cover

letter),

and a PDF version

posted

to the departmentWeb

site.

>

Ione.'Since

we

students

are

all

in

this situation together,

a

friendly, informal.

and

positive

(to

avoid

panic)

but serious tone seems best.

>

Due date and timing:Ihis document

must be

available

before students

arrive

next fall-but not so early that it

gets

forgotten

or overshadowed by other regis-

tration

paperwork.

>

Budget:fhis

document will be sent

as a

PDF

via email. No

printing

costs

are

involved.

Audien

Prima

Secon

Relatio

Purpos

Audien

lntend

lntorm

Techni

Cultura

Probab

Probab

Audien

Length

Format

Tone:

Due

dat

Budqet:

FIGURE

2.7

adapt

this

s

profile

in

a

8/17/2019 Lannon 1-34

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lannon-1-34 31/34

col-

who

to

to

the

con

to

in a

l'm

of

Develop

an

Audience

and

Use Profile

Audience

and

Purpose

Primary

audience:

hame. title)

Secondary

audiencels): (techn

c

ans, nanagers.

other)

Relationship

with

audience:

lcolleague.

emplover.

other)

Purpose of

documenl'.

linform, instruct,

persuade)

Audience

and

purpose

statement:

lntended

use of docu

menl

(perforn

tasks.

solve

a

problem.

other)

lnformation

needs:

lbackground.

basic facts.

other)

Technical

backgroun

d:

llavoerson,

expert.

other)

Cultural

considerations:

llevel

of

detail

or directness.

other)

Probable

questions:

Probable

reaclion'.

(resistance,

aDproval,

anqer,

other)

Audience

Plelerences

about

the

Document

length

and

detail

lcomprehensive.

conscise,

other)

Format

and

medium:

lettet,

memo,

Web

Dostinl, other)

fone:

lbusinesslike,

confident.

infornal.

other)

Due

d

ate a nd

tim ing:

(neet

deadline,

wa it for

the

best

time.

othe

Budgel:

fuhat

can be

soent on

what)

FIGURE

2.7

Audience

and

Use Profile

Depending

on

your

situation,

you

can

adapt this

sheet,

as

shown in

the case

that

begini

on

page

29.

For

a

completed

profile

in

a

persuasive

situation,

see Figure

3.5,

page

5g.-

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CHAPTER

2 Meeting

the Needs of

Specific

Audiences

CHECK

YOUR

DOCUMENT FOFI USABILITY

A

usable

doctment

is

safe,

dependable, and easy to

read

and

navigate. Regardless

ofthe

t)?e or format

(print

or

digital) ofthe

document,

a

usable

document allows

people to do three things

(Coe,

Human Facfors 93; Spencer

74):

o

easily locate the

information

they need

o

understand

the

information

immediately

o

use

the information safely and successfully

For more on usability

see

pages

482-86

in

Chapter

20.

To

guide

your writing

and revision, consult

the

following Usability

Checklist. This checklist

identifies broad usability standards

that apply to vir-

tually any document.

In addition, specific elements

(visuals,

page

layout)

and

specific documents

(proposals,

memos, instructions)

have

their own

standards

as

well. These standards are detailed

in the

individual

checklists for usability

throughout

this book.

GENERA

1.

Find

a

article

Style

al

ls

i-l

ls

I

Ar

 

Ar

 

ls

Page

r.-

ls

 

Are

I

Are

[-'

Do

aud

Ethica

fl

Do

L-

l

Do

 

Doe

ff;

(Numbers

in

parentheses

refer to

the

fust

page

of

discussian)

Content

n

ls ail material

relevant to thrs reader for this task?

(28)

n ls

all material

techn cally accurate?

(12)

n

ls the

level

of

technica ity appropriate for this audlence?

(20)

n Are warnings

and

cautions inserted where

needed?

(468)

n

Are

claims,

conclusions, and

recommendat ons supported by evidence?

(48)

fl ls the material free of

gaps,

foggy

areas,

or needless detai

s?

(25)

ll

Are

al key

terms

c

early

def

ined?

(409)

tl Are

all

data sources documented?

(648)

0rganization

 

1s the structure of the document

v s ble at a

g

ance?

(193)

 

s

there

a

clear

ine

of

reasoning that emphasizes

what

ls

most important?

(193)

 

s material organ

zed in the sequence

readers

are expected

to folow?

(193)

n

ls everything easy

to

ocate?

(193)

L]

ls

the

materla

"chunked"

into easily digestable

parts?

(205)

vanced

est leve

transla

on pag

from

a

lation

a

technica

originai

tion

of

2.

Assume

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Projects

vir

and

Style

-l

ls

each

sentence understandable

the

first

time t ls read?

(21

1)

L-]

ls rich information

expressed in

the

fewest

words

possible?

(216)

L

Are

sentences

put

together wlth enough variety?

(225)

I

Are

words chosen for

exactness, and not for

camouflage?

(225)

 

s the tone appropriate ior

the situation and audience?

(232)

Page Design

I ls

page

des

gn

invrt

ng,

accessible, and appropriate

for the readers' needs?

(293)

 

Are there adequate

aids to navlgation

(heads,

lsts,

type styles)?

(297)

f

Are

adequate visua s

used to ciarify, emphasize,

or summar ze?

(246)

I

Do supplements

(front

and

end

matter)

accommodate

the

needs

of

a

dlverse

audience?

(533)

Ethical, Legal,

and Cultural Considerations

I

Does

the document reflect sound

ethicaljudgment?

(63)

tl

Does the

document comply with copyright law

and

other

egai standards?

173)

 

Does the document

respect

readers'

cultura diversity?

(51)

GEN ERAL

l. Find

a

short

article from your field

(or

part

of a

long

article or

a

selection from your

textbook for

an

ad,

vanced

course).

Choose a

piece

written at the high-

est level oftechnicality

you

can

understand

and

then

translate

that

piece

for a lalperson,

as

in

the example

on

page 23. Exchange

translations with

a classmate

from

a

different

major. Read your neighbor\

trans

lation

and write a paragraph

evaluating its level

of

technicaliry

Submit to

your

instructor a copy

ofthe

original, your

translated version, and your

evalua

r ron

oIyour neighbor\ tran.lat ion.

2. Assume

that

a

new

employee

is takhg

over

your

job

because you

have been

promoted.

Identifr

a specific

problem

in

the

job

that couJd cause difficulty for

the

new

employee.

Assume that you

will need to write

instructions for the

employee

to

help

him

or

her

avoid

or

cope

with

the

problem.

Create an audience

and

use

profile

based

on

Figure 2.7

(page

3l).

Use

the

page

29 Case

as a model

for your responses.

TEAM

Form

teams

of3

6 people. Teammates

should

be

ofthe

same

or similar majors

(electrical

engineering,

biology,

graphic design,

etc.). Research the

job

market

for gradu

ates

in your

major, including specific

tlpes of skills that

employers

seek

beyond

those

courses

in

your

specialty

(such

as

technical communication, public

speaking, oral

presentations,

Web design,

or

the

like).

The final docu-

ment will

be

posted

to the depadmenti Web

site.

8/17/2019 Lannon 1-34

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CHAPTER

2

Meeting

the

Needs of Specific

Audiences

Before

you can

prepare this document,

you

need

a

thorough analysis

of

your

audience

and

purpose.

Complete

your

audience

and use

profile using

the

worksheet

on page 31

or

a modified

version of this

worksheet.

Include a clear and

specific audience

and

purpose statement.

Appoint a

team

member to

present the complete

Audience

and

Use

Profile

for

class

evaluation, com

parison, and

response.

DIGITAL AND

SOCIAL MEDIA

Locate

a

Web site that accommodates

various

readers

at

different levels of

technicaliry

Sites

for government

agencies such

as

those

listed below

are

good

sources of

both general and

specialized

information.

Environmental

Protection

Agency

(EPA)

<www.ePa.8ov>

Nuclear Regulatory Commission

(NRC)

<www.nrc.gov>

National

Institutes of

Health

(NIH)

<www.nih.gov>

Food

and Drug

Administration

(FDA)

<www.fda.gov>

Examine one ofthese

sites

and

find

an example

of(a) ma-

terial

aimed at a

general

audience,

ald

(b)

material on

the same

topic aimed at a specialized

or

exPert audience.

First,

list

the specific

features

that

enabled

you to

identiry

each

piece's level

oftechnicality.

Next,

using the

Audience

and Use

Profile

Sheet

(p.

31),

record the

assumPtions

about the audience

made by the author

ofthe nontechni-

cal

version. Finally,

evaluate

how

well that

piece addresses

a

nontechnical

reader's information

needs.

(Hiafr

Check

out,

for

instance, the

MEDLINE link

at the NIH site.)

Be

prepared to

discuss

your evaluation

in

class.

GLOBAL

The

U.S.

Immigration

and Naturalization

Service's

Web

site,

at

<www.ins.gov>,

is designed

for

a

truly

global

au-

dience.

After visiting the site, answer

these

questions:

o

Would this

site

be

easy

for virtually

any English

speaker

to

navigate?

List

the features

that

accom

modate

readers

from

diverse

areas

ofthe

globe.

.

Could

improvements be

made

in

the site's

ease

of

use? What

changes would you

recommend?

Print

out

relevant

site

pages and be

prepared to discuss

your conclusions

in class.

ldentify

Goal

Try

to

Pr

Expect

A

Know

Ho

Audience

Allow

fo

Ask

for

a

Never

As

Recogniz

Conside

Emotion

Support

Consider

Guideline

Shaping

Checklis

Proiests