The Reformation: Overview

Martin Luther’s Theses: 1517• Catholic theology: faith and

good works are required for salvation

• “Indulgences:” one form by which believers can do good works; money paid to church to atone for sin; key source of revenue for Church

• Luther posted theses on door of Wittenberg castle church

• Split European society and ignited savage violence that lasted through 1648

• So what was so radical?...

Luther’s Radical Theology• Luther: Confession frees sinner of

sinful burden, not by priest’s absolution, by inner grace and faith

• Luther: Faith and Jesus’s crucifixion alone were sufficient for man’s salvation

• Later, Luther– Believed individuals should read Bible

in vernacular and interpret according to own conscience

– Attacked reliance on fasts, pilgrimages, saints, masses, and rejected purgatory

– Reduced 7 sacraments to 2 (baptism and communion)

– Repudiated “transubstantiation,” but affirmed mystical presence of Christ in Eucharist (“consubstantiation”)

Diet of Worms: 1521• Habsburg Charles V

summoned Luther to Worms re: excommunication

• Luther: to be convinced only by scripture or reason

• After sentence of banishment, Luther hidden by Elector of Saxony

• Wrote key works in hiding

• Diet propelled Luther’s ideas to international prominence

German “Peasants Revolt” 1525• Printing press spread

Luther’s ideas• Charles V was fervent

loyal to Roman Christianity and Church was large landholder– Princes, cities and

peasants politicized Lutheranism to seek independence

– Reformers used Lutheranism to demand social change

– Peasants demanded regulation of rents, end of feudal dues, land and rights to common lands

Luther Opposed the Peasants Revolt

• Lutheran peasants, towns and principalities seized Catholic lands and warfare began

• Luther repudiated connection with the peasants; up to 100,000 peasants killed

• Luther created Lutheran clergy and drew closer to government: maintain order

• Charles V urged popes to hold council to hear Protestants, to try to heal the dividing church through compromise

Peace of Augsburg: 1555• 1530: Turks controlled

southeastern Europe, threatened Vienna

• Augsburg Confession: 1530:– Charles V desired unified HRE– “Confession” stated common

beliefs of Catholics and Lutherans– Unrest continued after Turks were

defeated• Peace of Augsburg: 1555

– Ended 30 years warfare between German Catholic and Protestant regions

– Cuius region, eius religio (“whose the region, his the religion”): only Lutheranism or Catholicism

– No individual freedom of choice – all citizens to follow local choice

John Calvin: Calvinism• Agreed with most Lutheran

beliefs, but differed in– Communion a pious, symbolic

act – Christ not present in Eucharist

– Emphasized predestination: God offers grace to “the elect,” whom he knows in advance

– True Christians should Christianize the state, rather than being subordinate

• 1530s: faith spread to Geneva, Netherlands, Scotland, parts of England, parts of France

• French Calvinists = Huguenots• English Calvinists = Puritans• Theory in history: Calvinism

helped spread ethic of capitalism in northern Europe

Anabaptists• Ana = again

Baptist = baptize• Believers must be “born again”

and that salvation brings responsibility towards fellow man

• Religion included social equality, end of feudal system, pacifism, typically from lower classes

• Suffered most persecution of all Reformation groups

• Radical Anabaptists: establish by revolution an ideal Christian common-wealth, with absolute equality and communal ownership of goods.

• Heavily involved in German Peasants War: overthrow feudalism via religion

Anabaptist Seizure of Münster• 1534: Anabaptists overthrew city

government of Münster and expelled Catholics and Lutherans

• Jan Matthys predicted apocalypse on Easter Sunday

• Elect of the Last Days abolished money and private property; desecrated cathedral; attempted to foment revolution elsewhere

• Besieged by army of bishop of Münster: starvation threatened after several months

• Jan of Leiden succeeded Matthys, declared himself king of Münster, took 15 wives; ran naked through streets in religious fervor

• Bishop’s army attacked town and executed virtually all the Anabaptist inhabitants over 4 days; tortured Leiden and hung body in cage

Counter-reformation: Council of Trent: 1545-7, 1551-2, 1562-3

• Catholic council to address doctrine and reform of church practices

• Affirmed pre-existing doctrines: no concessions to Protestants

• Retain Latin as language of church and scriptures

• Individuals forbidden to interpret scriptures without priestly guidance

• Reaffirmed that scripture and tradition are of equal value

• Clergy must live in their jurisdiction areas; seminary in each diocese

• Kept indulgences, but curbed abuses

• Loyola: Jesuit Order