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PREPOSITIONS,
CONJUNCTIONS,ARTICLESAND
INTERJECTIONS
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@ PREPOSITIONS@Preposi t ionsare a class of words that
indicate relationships between nouns,
pronouns and other words in a sentence.
Most often they come before a noun.The good news is that they never change
their form, regardless of the case, gender
etc. of the word they are referring to.
Prepositions are classified
as s impleor compound.
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Simple prepositions are single word prepositions -across , after, at, before, between, by, du ring, from , in,into , of, on, to, under, w ith and w ithout are all singleword prepositions.
For example:- The book is onthe table.
Is there something underyour chair?
Compound prepositions are more than one word - inbetweenandbecause of- are prepositions made up oftwo words - in fron t of, on behal f of - are prepositionsmade up of three words. For example:-
The book is in b etweenWar and Peace and The Lord of theRings.
Who is the person in front of you?
* CLASSIFICATIONOF
PREPOSITIONS
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*PREPOSITIONSOFMOVEMENTPrepositions are used to show movement to
or from a place. (e.g. to, th rough, acro ss )
We use toto show movement with the aimof a specific destination.
For example:-
I moved toGermany in 1998.
He's gone tothe shops.Where will you go toafter class?
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We use th roughto show movement from
one side of an enclosed space to theother. For example:
The limousine went th rough the tunnel.
Where will the passengers pass th roughto checktheir luggage?
We use acrossto show movement from one
side of a surface or line to another. For example:
She swam across the river.
What subdivision is acrossthe UCP?
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More prepositions of movement
She ran...
across the road. (from one side to the other)
along
the road. (The length of the road.)around the playground.
away from the policeman.
back to the shop.down the hill.into the room.o ff
the stage.
onto (on to)the platform.
out of the theatre.
overthe bridge. (from one side of an open space tothe other)
past
the opening.round the track.th rough the tunnel.to the door.towards the bus stop.under
the shelter.
up
the hill.
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Atand incan also be used as prepositions of
movement, but they're used to show the
purpose of the movement. For example:
I threw the paper inthe bin.
Let's have dinner atmy place.
When used after some verbs, the
preposition atalso shows the target of an
action: The bowler was sent off for throwing the
ball atthe umpire, instead of tothe batsman.
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*PREPOSITIONSOFPLACE
Prepositions can be used to show where something islocated.
The prepositions at, on, and in
We use atto show a specific place or position.
For example:Someone is atthe door.They are waiting atthe bus stop.I used to live at51 Portland Street.
Where you at?
We use onto show position on a horizontal or verticalsurface.
For example:The cat sat onthe mat.The satellite dish is onthe roof.
Is my laptop on the table or onthe rack?
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We also use onto show position on streets, roads,
etc.
For example:
I used to live onPortland Street.
We use into show that something is enclosed or
surrounded.
For example:The dog is inthe garden.
Put your tools inthe box.
We also use into show position within land-areas(towns, counties, states, countries, and continents).
For example:
I used to live inNottingham.
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on
The painting was hanging on the wall.
The boy was sitting on the chair.
over/above
The sign hanging over/abovethe door read 'No
smoking'.
I put the tablecoth over the table.
I enjoy watching the planes fly above me.
under / below
The temperature outside wasunder/belo
w0.
The woman was sheltering under a tree.
When flying I enjoy watching the clouds below me.
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@ ARTICLES@First the good news:There are only three articles in
English: a, an and the.
There are two typesof articles indef ini te 'a' and
'an 'or defini te ' the'.You also need to know whennot to use an article.
The bad news is that their proper use is complex,
especially when you get into the advanced use of
English. Quite often you have to work it out by
what soundsright, which can be frustrating for a
learner.
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INDEFINITEARTICLESAANDAN
(DETERMINERS)
Aand anare the indefinite articles. They refer to
something not specifically known to the person you are
communicating with.
Aand anare used before nouns that introduce something
or someone you have not mentioned before
For example
"I saw anelephant this morning."
"I ate abanana for lunch."
Aand anare also used when talking about yourprofession:-
For example
"I am anEnglish teacher."
"I am a builder."
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You use awhen the noun you are referring to begins witha consonant(b, c, d , f, g, h, j, k, l, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, w,x, y or z), for example, "acity", "afactory", and "a hotel".
You use anwhen the noun you are referring to begins witha vowel(a, e, i, o , u)
Pronunciation changes this rule. It's the sound thatmatters, not the spelling.
***Note! In some cases, nouns or adjectives, althoughstarting with a consonant letter, use an if the initial
syllable takes a vowel sound (e.g. an hour). Similarly,nouns or adjectives, use a if the initial syllable soundslike a consonant even if they begin with a vowel (e.g. auniversity.
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We say "university" with a "y" sound at thebeginning as though it were spelt
"youniversity".
So, "auniversity" IS correct.
We say "hour" with a silent h as though it
were spelt "our".
So, "anhour" IS correct.
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DEFINITEARTICLE- THE(DETERMINERS)
There are two ways to pronounce "the".
One "thuh" and the other "thee". To learn how to
pronounce them see the pronunciation files: How
to pronounce " the" .
We use thewhen you have already mentioned the
thing you are talking about.
For example:
"She's got two children; agirl and aboy. Thegirl's eight
and theboy's fourteen."We use theto talk about geographical
points on the globe.
For example:
theNorth Pole, theequator
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We use theto talk about rivers, oceans and seas.
For example:
theNile, thePacific, theEnglish channel.
We also use thebefore certain nouns when we
know there is only one of a particular thing.
For example:
therain, thesun, thewind, theworld, theearth, theWhite Houseetc..
However if you want to describe a particular
instance of these you should use a/an.
For example:
"I could hear thewind." / "There's acold wind blowing."
"What are your plans for thefuture?" / "She has apromising future
ahead of her."
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Theis also used to say that a particular person or
thing being mentioned is the best, most famous,
etc. In this use, 'the' is usually given strong
pronunciation whether or not it precedes a vowel:
For example:
"Harry's Bar is theplace to go."
"You don't mean you met theTony Blair, do you?" !Note - Thedoesn't mean all:-
For example:
"Thebooks are expensive." = (Not all books are
expensive, just the ones I'm talking about.) "Books are expensive." = (All books are expensive.)
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NOARTICLE
We usually use no article to talk about things in general:
Inflationis rising.
Peopleare worried about rising crime. (Note! People generally, so no
article)
You do not use an article when talking about sports. For example:
My son plays football.
Tennisis expensive.
You do not use an article before uncountable nouns whentalking about them generally.
For example:
Information is important to any organization.
Coffee is bad for you.
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You do not use an article before the names of
countries exceptwhere they indicate multiple areas or
contain the words (state(s), kindom, republic, union).
Kingdom, state, republic and union are nouns, so they need
an article.
For example:
No article - Italy, Mexico, Bolivia, England
Use the - theUK (United Kingdom), theUSA
(United Statesof America), theIrish Republic
Multiple areas! theNetherlands, thePhilippines, theBritishIsles
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@ CONJUNCTIONS@ You can spend your life writing or speaking short
sentences, but (and that's a conjunction) if you want yourEnglish to flow a bit more naturally you need to learn howto join sentences together and (another conjunction) youneed some linking words to do this.
Basically a conjunction connects two words, sentences orclauses together:
although, and, because, but, if, or, so, unless, when,while ...
There are two types of conjunction: coordinatingconjunctions and subordinating conjunctions.
You can also use conjunctions in pairs, these are calledcorrelatives.
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COORDINATINGCONJUNCTIONS
A coordinating conjunction, also called a coordinator, links
parts of a sentence. This could be two independent (main)
clauses, two noun phrases, adjectives, adverbials etc of
equal importance.
They include: for, and, nor, but, or, yet and so,
There's a mnemonic for remembering them: FANBOYS.
For example:-
It was cold. I wore a coat. Both sentences are valid on their own, but they can be
written so that they're obviously linked;"It was cold, so I wore
a coat."
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The three most used coordinating
conjunctions are and , or, andbut.
The coordinating conjunction andusuallyexpresses addition or combination.
For example:-
I attended the meeting. + My friend attended the
meeting. = My friend andI attended the meeting.
The coordinating conjunction butexpresses a
contrast.
We were tired. + We were happy. = We weretired bu thappy.
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The coordinating conjunction orexpresses
choice.
For example:-Would you like tea? + Would you like coffee? = Would
you like tea orcoffee?
There are two negative coordinating
conjunctions: neither and nor.
For example:-
She spoke neitherGerman norFrench.("nor" must
always be part of the "neither ... nor" construction).
!Note - nor, for, and so can only
join independent c lauses.
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SUBORDINATINGCONJUNCTIONS
A subordinating conjunction, also called a
subordinator, joins a dependent / subo rd inate
clauseto a main verb. They are used to show any
relationship between them and they turn the clauseinto something that is dependant on the rest of the
sentence for its meaning.
For example:-
Because it was snowing ... makes no sense on its own.
We went skiing, because it was snowing.Aha!
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Subordinating conjunctions include: after,
although, because, before, if, in case, so that,
therefore, unless, when, while ... For example:
Beforeyou came here, you thought you
understood English grammar.
We left the party whenthe police arrived.
!Note - The subordinate clause sometimes
comes at the beginning of a sentence.
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CORRELATIVES
Some conjunctions are used in pairs, they are
called correlative conjunctions. They are used to
show the relationship between ideas expressed in
different parts of a sentence.Most are coordinating correlatives including:
both ... and
either ... or
neither ... nornot only ... but also
For example:-
He was not on lya scoundrel, bu t alsoa cruel man.
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We use eitheror together when we want to
link two positives:-
For example:-Eitherthe president orthe vice-president will go to the
conference.(The president will go to the conference, or
the vice-president will go, not both of them though.)
We use neithernor together when we want
to link two negative ideas:-
For example:-
Neitherthe president northe vice-president were ableto solve the problem.(The president couldn't solve the
problem and the vice-president couldn't solve it either.)
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Some are subordinating correlatives.
if ... then
less ... than
more ... than
so ... that
For example:-
She was sohungry thatshe could have
eaten a horse.
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ENDOFPRESENTATION
Special credits to http://www.learnenglish.de