1In Support of The White Tiger: Facts and Fallacies

There are differences of opinion on White Tigers. Unfortunately much “info” put online and copied about is misleading, blatantly false, or opinion stated as fact. Sometimes facts true for a small set of circumstances or period of time get picked up and erroneously applied to a much wider situation or timeframe.

This report summarizes some facts and fallacies, with references that back up and expand on what is stated. The opinions expressed in this report are based on information gathered from reputable sources – mainly books, articles and quotes from scientists and zoo/wildlife professionals. Some quotes and passages have been transcribed for the reader’s convenience. Only the bare bones of the info is included – the references will give more details for those who want to read more.

Although this report is clearly in support of white tigers, I emphasize that I do not condone inbreeding or any practice that compromises the welfare of animals. My intention is to show that neither are necessary in the breeding of white tigers, and that white tigers deserve a place in our world.

Contents:

i. Abbreviationsii. Updates

1. Origin of the White Tiger - arose naturally in the wild over 100 years ago

2. Freak or Mutation ? - natural mutation, part of genetic diversity

3. Survival in the Wild - yes, they did, with proof

4. Extinction in the Wild - caused by man

5. White Tiger Genetics and Lines - there are several lines

6. Breeding and Inbreeding - inbreeding not necessary

7. Health of White Tigers - it’s not a genetic deformity

8. Pure Subspecies v Generic Tigers - genetic diversity

9. AZA Recommendations and SSP - one size doesn’t fit all (zoos)

10. White Tigers Around the World - in captivity and wild

11. Conservation and Evolution - we don’t know it all

Conclusion - the white tiger is worth preserving as part of the tiger’s genetic diversity

References

Recommended Reading Draft - L. Drummond Feb 2013, Feb 2014

2i. AbbreviationsAZA – American Association of Zoos and Aquariumsivf – in vitro fertilizationsp – speciesssp – subspeciesSSP – Species Survival Plan

ii. Updates

Feb 2013 – original draft

Feb 2014- describing the necessary role of mutation in genetic diversity and evolution in section 2.- including the results of the recent genetic study [36,37,38] and it’s implications in sections 2,5,6,7 and

Conclusion.- expanding the contents page and references page.

31 Origin of the White Tiger

FALLACY: The white tiger is a man-made breed started in 1951.

FACT: The white tiger arose naturally in the wild at least 100 years ago.

They were found notably in the Rewa area of India, also recorded in Assam, Orissa, Poona, Bilaspur, Cooch Behar, Nepal and elsewhere. [14,19] They are sometimes said to have occurred only in the Indian Bengal ssp, but there are also reports of white tigers in other countries. [11,31] [10. White Tigers Around the World]

There are several reputable sources confirming dozens of white tigers in the wild in India over the 1890’s to 1930s – hunting records, the Journal of Bombay Natural History Society, EP Gee, AA Dunbar Brander, and other authors…..plus Jim Corbett’s 1940’s film of a fully-grown white tigress. [7,13,14,31]

Confirmed sightings go back to 1820, when one was exhibited at Exeter Exchange, [14,18] but there are indications of white tigers much earlier than this. For example, a painting from the Akbar Nama c1561AD, illustrating an actual event, appears to depict 2 white tigers with 2 orange. [22]

It is not currently possible to say exactly when the white gene arose or how many tigers there were carrying it. Records for the 20th century give an indication, but records prior to this are sketchy. As the white colour is due to a recessive gene, it is possible (and probable) that in addition to wild white tigers there were many more wild orange tigers carrying the white gene. [See also 5. White Tiger Genetics and Lines]

As the white tiger has been bred extensively in captivity, it may be reasonable to say that as it is now, it is a man-made breed. However, the same can be said for all tiger ssp’s bred in captivity – Man decides which tigers will get a chance to mate; which tigers are important genetically; tigers are not living in their natural wild habitat and are adapted to life in captivity instead. Even ivf and preserving sperm for use in future generations is condoned. [33] There is little natural selection at work in captivity. This is not a criticism of the work being done with Tiger SSPs – their aim is to preserve the genetic variety in the tiger ssp. [33]

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References: [7,9,11,13,14,18,19,22,31,33] Ref 31 contains a detailed account of white tiger sightings in India.And a few quotes:

“Mohan was by no means the first white mutant” [14 KS p161]“One of the earliest records of a white tiger was of a specimen exhibited at Exeter Change in 1820. White tigers were reported from Burma and the Jynteah hills of Meghalaya by Pollock (1900). Other authentic records tell of the shooting of white tigers from 1892 to 1922 in Poona, Upper Assam, Orissa, Bilaspur and Cooch Behar. In the 1920s and ‘30s several were killed in various districts, and 15 white tigers were shot in Bihar alone. Some of these trophies are exhibited in Calcutta Museum and at Mica camp, Tisri, in Bihar. On 22 Jan 1939 a white tiger was killed by the Prime Minister of Nepal at Barda camp in Terai Nepal”. [14 KS p153]

“Although neither black nor white Lions appear to have been recorded, both these colour-variations have been observed in the Tiger.…a pale whitish specimen, in which the stripes were very opaque and only visible in certain lights, was exhibited alive many years ago at Exeter ‘Change, and has been figured in Griffith’s “Animal Kingdom”. Another nearly white specimen, from Northern India, is recorded by Mr Howard Saunders in the Proceedings of the Zoological Society for 1891.” [Lydekker “Cats” Tiger chapter p50]

“A.A. Dunbar Brander wrote in "Wild Animals In Central India"(1923): "White tigers occasionally occur. There is a regular breed of theseanimals in the neighborhood of Amarkantak at the junction of the Rewastate and the Mandla and Bilaspur districts. When I was last in Mandla in1919, a white tigress and two three parts grown white cubs existed.” [White Tiger Report]

“In an article in the Bombay Natural History Society…E P Gee (1959) records no less than 35, with comments of unrecorded numbers occurring in Assam. Rowland ward’s Records of Big Game also records a number of white tigers. Many of these animals were collected as adults, which indicates survivability” – Edward Maruska [7]

42. Freak or Mutation ?

FALLACY: White tigers are abnormal freaks

FACT: White tigers are a natural mutation

“The origin of the white tigers is assumed to be the result of gene mutation. A gene for orange coat colour in a tiger mutated to one for white colour in the past. This mutant gene must have gradually spread among some tigers in the forests through interbreeding*. If two tigers each having a mutant gene mate, one in four cubs is likely to be white.” - A.K. Roychoudhery [19]

What is a mutation ? Is it a 2-headed calf or 5-legged sheep ? No. Mutation is a natural occurance, a significant change in genetic material. [7] Evolution depends on mutation.

“Mutations are changes in the genetic sequence, and they are a main cause of diversity among organisms …mutation is one of the fundamental forces of evolution” [35]

When a species has been through a genetic bottleneck, eg the cheetah, with a period of inbreeding in the wild and reduced genetic diversity, that diversity can slowly recover over time through mutation.

A recent study has pinpointed the mutation to “a change in a single amino acid (A477V) in one pigmentation-related gene (SLC45A2)….mutations in the same pigmentation-related gene (SLC45A2) causes light skin colour in modern Europeans, as well. Mutations in the same gene causes skin lightening in some mouse, horse, and chicken, the scientists point out.” [36,37]

“They dismiss the notion that white tiger trait is a genetic deformity. That matured white tiger adults have been sighted in the wild negates this notion.Despite its low frequency, they emphasise that the mutation is a naturally occurring one and should be considered as a “part of genetic diversity of tigers that is worth conserving.” [36]

It is not currently possible to state when and where this mutation arose in the tiger – it could have been 190 years ago (as per recent historical records), or 450 years ago as per the Akbarnama, or even long before. Although paleobiologists can tell a great deal about prehistoric tigers from their bones, they cannot differentiate between coat colours. [24] [11.Conservation and Evolution]

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Refs: [7,9,19,24,35,36,37]

*Note: interbreeding (mixing different breeds) is not the same as inbreeding (breeding close relatives).

Quote: “This mutation or colour phase of the tiger does not have the same appeal among all zoo directors..…William Conway, General Director of the New York Zoological Society, stating his concerns for the captive space being utilized by white tigers that might otherwise be used for other tiger subspecies, made reference to white tigers as freaks…. Two-headed calves and white tigers.”. Although the comment makes for interesting prose, his approach is not sound biology” – Edward J. Maruska, Cincinnati Zoo.

53. Survival in the Wild

FALLACY: White tigers can’t survive in the wild - with no camouflage they can’t catch their prey.

FACT: White tigers can, and did survive to adulthood in the wild and reproduce - as evidenced by hunting records, eye-witnesses, and Corbett’s film. [see 1. Origin of White Tigers for refs].

How and why ? The answer may be that their prey do not see in colour as we do. Also, tigers tend to be active at night [16] and a white tiger still has the stripes to break up its body appearance (this is camouflage). [7]

Tigers live in a variety of conditions and have even been found up to 4000m in the Himalayas. [21] A white tiger may be well-camouflaged in such environments (eg pale rocky slopes, riversides etc).

The white gene may confer advantages, eg white tigers tend to be larger and heavier, as do the orange tigers carrying the white gene. [7,14,19] The more varied a species gene pool the better a species’ chance of survival, [7] and keeping this gene in the pool may be one of Nature’s “insurance policies” against changing environmental conditions. (eg larger body size is an advantage for conserving body heat in colder climates).

The white tiger may even be more suited to life in an environment changed by man, as man encroaches on and destroys the jungle habitat. One intriguing report from India in 1924 described how one white tiger appeared to use it’s colour to advantage amongst herds of cattle. [see quote below]

Note: It has also been asserted that the white lion could not survive in the wild due to its colour but this has also been demonstrated to be untrue, by the Global White Lion Protection Trust. [23]

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References [7,14,16,19,21,23]

Quote from GWLPT: “Here the lions are proving on a daily basis that they are the world’s apex predator, and their hunting skills are not compromised in any way by their radiant white coats. “ [23]

“White Tiger is Killed In India”, The Evening Independent, Jun 9 1924

“Calcutta, June 9. Sportsmen all over India are greatly interested in the skin of a white tiger recently shot by the Maharaja of Sirguja and which is now on display here.

Except for a few darked stripings the pelt is almost pure white and measures nine feet eight inches from nose to tail tip. The white tiger is extremely rare, but few specimens ever having been secured, and this one is reported to have had a career of depredation that included three human victims and innumerable cattle.

According to reports from the district in which it was killed, the beast actually appeared to use its unusual coloration as an aid to hunting. It was continually mistaken for a steer or cow as it lay quietly among the herds waiting a chance to kill, and the natives assert that it mixed freely with the herds without exciting alarm.

Three instances are related of the tiger having been seen lying quietly in the jungle and being mistaken by natives for a beast it had slain and in each of these cases when the native approached, he was killed. “

64. Extinction in the Wild

FALLACY: The white tiger died out naturally in the wild.

FACT: Man’s actions made it impossible for them to survive.

White tigers are assumed extinct in the wild from 1958. [14] Simple arithmetic shows that this is a consequence of the drastic decrease in overall tiger numbers (caused by man). The tiger population, approx 100,000* in 1900, has plummeted to approx 3000 today, due to heavy hunting (for many years tigers were considered vermin and bounties were paid), habitat and prey loss, and poaching – all caused by man.

The white tiger was rare, estimated as only 1 born in 10,000*. These figures would indicate approx 10 wild white tigers in 1900 (ie 10/100,000), down to zero born today (ie 0.3 out of 3,000). Even Gee’s 1960’s estimate of 4000 tigers in India would not statistically allow for the birth of any white tigers in the wild back then.

It is possible (but unknown) that some wild orange tigers may still carry the white gene.

The white tiger survived and reproduced in the wild for over 100 years, probably much longer. [1. Origin of

the White Tiger] It is not known if the occurrence of the white gene in the wild was increasing or decreasing. Increased reports around the turn of the 20th century may have been due to lack of knowledge or records kept prior to that.

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References: [14]

* Note: The figures of 100,000 tigers in 1900, and the 1 in 10,000 tigers are widely quoted. I have not found the original sources, but have not seen any info to dispute these either. EP Gee estimated 40,000 tigers in India alone around the turn of the century, down to 4,000 in 1964. Kailash Sankhala’s 1972 census indicated 2700 tigers in India. KS does give examples of the type of decrease in certain areas that correlate with the total estimates: eg “In the forests of Rewa, where as late as 1924 no less than 162 tigers were shot in one year, only 21 now remain” (ie in 1972) [KS p173].

75. White Tiger Genetics and Lines

FALLACY: The ONLY way to produce white tigers is by inbreeding close family relatives.

FACT: Their history and genetics proves this to be false.

The white tiger is not a separate species or sub-species – it is a colour variation within the Bengal tiger subspecies (maybe in others also). It is not caused by albinism, but by a genetic change that blocks the production of yellow/red pigmentation [36,37] [See also 2. Freak or Mutation?]

The white coat/blue eyes is caused by a recessive gene allele - w. The orange coat colour is dominant and designated W. Note that “recessive” does not mean inferior or defective, it merely indicates a gene that is masked when paired with it’s dominant allele.

The gene alleles occur in pairs – ww will produce a white tiger, while Ww or WW produce orange tigers. The cub gets one gene from each of it’s parents, so if 2 white tigers (ww) are mated, all their cubs will be white (ww). If 2 orange carrier tigers (Ww) mate, the cubs can be WW, Ww, or ww - there is a 1 in 4 chance of a white cub. [14] The white gene can thus be passed down through generations of orange tigers without showing up.

The history of wild white tiger sightings shows that the w gene occurred in tigers in different areas, signifying a spread throughout the wild. [19, 1.Origin of the White Tiger]

There were also several unrelated founder lines of captive white tigers – eg in India the Rewa (Mohan) line, and the Orissa line. [11,8,19] In USA, the Hawthorn Circus Sheba/Bagheera/Frosty line, and the ShebaII/Rajah/Tony lines. [11,32] There may be others given that orange tigers can carry the w gene – eg the Orissa line was a surprise result from pairing 2 orange tigers.

Thus, both history and genetics show that it is not necessary to inbreed siblings or parent-offspring pairs to produce white tigers (although this was done in the past to increase the numbers quickly).

It is not even necessary to breed white tiger to white tiger to produce a white cub. [19,27] All that is necessary is to mate 2 tigers that each have one or 2 of the w white gene to give a possiblity of a white cub - and there are unrelated lines of tigers that carry this gene.

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References: [8,11,14,19,27,32,36,37] Ref 32 covers the lineages in more detailSee also 1. Origin of the White Tiger for history of wild white tiger sightings.

Quote: “All the white tigers in Indian zoos originated from two lineages, one from Rewa and the other from Nandankanan” (ie Orissa) – Roychoudhery et al, [19]

“…white tigers had been sighted in the forests of Rewa for 50 years. There are also reports on white tigers seen in the forests of Bihar, Orissa and Assam. All these white tigers found at different places must have been the results of matings between normal coloured tigers carrying mutant genes for white coat colour” [19]

“The colour of the fur, stripes and eye of the tiger is determined independently by two types of melanin — pheomelanin and eumelanin. In the case of white tigers, only the pheomelanin that produces the red to yellow colour is affected. Eumelanin gives the black to brown colour and is unaffected, the reason why the eye and hair in the stripes are dark or sepia brown.” [36]

86 Breeding and Inbreeding

FALLACY: All White tigers are severely inbred

FACT: Inbreeding is mostly a practice of the past. “Inbreeding is a problem that can be controlled utilizing proper management”. [7]

Early InbreedingIn the early days of captive white tiger breeding, there was a lot of inbreeding by zoos in the rush to preserve the gene and increase numbers [7,8,9,27]. Some zoos inbred more than others (both orange and white tigers) due to difficulty in locating suitable breeding partners, lack of space etc. [7,8]

There has also been inbreeding in other captive ssp populations – eg Amur (17 founders, some possibly siblings [2,3] ), and South China (up to 6 founders, only one female [5,28] ). Note that the captive Amur population has since been improved from a mean inbreeding coefficient of 0.108 in 1982 down to 0.034 in 1994*, showing that early inbreeding can be rectified. [33]

Similarly, “The entire population of tigers [in Indian zoos] carrying white genes is descended from 16 individuals of which 11 are known to be wild born and five are of unknown origin.” [19] As the white tiger is not a subspecies, but a colour variation, it does not have to be bred white to white to build up the numbers. The advantage this gives is the potential for outcrossing with orange tigers [8,30,38] – this effectively increases the available gene pool even further.

Early Work to Improve White Tiger GeneticsSeveral zoos, notably Cincinnati and Henry Doorly zoos, bred to improve their white tiger lines by outcrossing with unrelated orange tigers. Ed Maruska of the Cincinnati Zoo reported very good health and survival statistics for their line of white tigers. [7] Lee Simmons of Henry Doorly noted that to continue improving and preserve the white gene would require a coordinated effort with other zoos able to participate to the same extent. [9]

K.A. Roychoudhury compiled a Studbook of White Tigers in Indian Zoos, listing inbreeding coefficients for possible combinations of parents, thus highlighting appropriate breeding pairs. “Now, zoos which have white tigers can avoid the delitrious effects of inbreeding by consulting the studbook”. [19] The Nandankanan zoo obtained tigers from the Rewa line for breeding with their unrelated Orissa line.

Into the Private SectorMany of the outcrossed white tigers from the USA zoos above were sold into the private sector, where the breeding, outcrossing, and improving of genetic health has continued. Undoubtedly there will be some unscrupulous breeders who do inbreed, but the numbers of healthy white tigers today bear testament to the good breeding standards of other, reputable breeders – eg Hawthorn Circus. [17,32]

It is estimated that today there are about 400 white tigers in private ownership in USA, with as many as 1000 heterozygous orange tigers carrying the white gene. [17] That is a larger pool than most captive pure subspecies of tiger. *[25] In India, the white tiger is part of the Bengal tiger ssp.

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Refs [2,3,5,7,8,9,17,19,25,30,32,33,38] * Inbreeding Coefficient: Parent/child or brother/sister matings = IC of 0.250. First cousins mating = IC of 0.0625.* Estimates of captive tiger subspecies populations c2010: Amur-421, Sumatran-291, Malayan-115, Indochinese-14, Bengal-195 [25]Quote: “If outcrossing and backcrossing are conducted alternately, white tigers can be produced with the lowest possible level of inbreeding”. [8]“..Simmons said zoos breed responsibly by periodically crossing white tigers with orange ones to maintain a healthy gene pool”. [30]

97 Health of White Tigers

FALLACY: White tigers are deformed/unhealthy and many die young or at birth

FACT: There are 100’s of healthy white tigers living today. “The white tiger trait is not a genetic deformity” [36]

Fallacy 1: “All white tigers are deformed”. A quick search of the internet will reveal photos of dozens of healthy, beautiful white tigers – and many photos of ONE deformed tiger. This is Kenny, “the poster child for the campaign against white tigers”. As an aside, Kenny’s deformities may well be from inbreeding – but deformities/early death can have many other causes as well, including poor diet and husbandry. [7,8,32]

Ed Maruska of Cincinnati Zoo demonstrated that different zoos achieved vastly different results, possibly due to differences in husbandry. He reported very good health in his zoo’s tigers, with few problems. [7]

Fallacy 2: “For every perfect white tiger you see, at least 100 were euthanized because of deformity”. This is a physical impossibility. It is estimated that there are approx 400 white tigers in USA alone – the assertion above would mean that more than 4000 white cubs have been born over 9 generations. [17]

Some of the misconceptions may have come from relying on studies of early breeding attempts involving close inbreeding at a small number of zoos (eg New Delhi, Calcutta, Bristol). These studies predate or ignore more recent breeding practices, [see 6. Breeding and Inbreeding] and to extrapolate these results to ALL breeding programs gives erroneous (often impossible) results. [7,17] The programs with high inbreeding did indeed have high mortality, and lower fertility. If this had been the norm and had continued for all 9 generations – well, the white tiger would have died out well before 9 generations due to inbreeding depression. [7,8,27]

Inbreeding Defects v Recessive Gene DefectsClose inbreeding undoubtedly can cause defects, such as low fertilitiy, many stillbirths, reduced litter size, weak immunity, arching of backbone, crooked necks, shortened tendons/legs. [7,27] If white tigers are continually inbred, these problems can (and do) result. But as we have seen, it is not necessary to inbreed to produce white tigers.

The white gene mutation affects only the pigmentation, so does not of itself cause health defects. [36]

Recessive genes can be paired with deleterious genes. [29] White tigers do have a tendency to eye weakness, eg strabismus, but this does not occur in all white tigers and it may be possible to breed the trait out. [7]

The white colour itself is often presented as a “deleterious” effect [29] – but history shows that white tigers can and did survive in the wild. [see also 2. Survival in the Wild and 11. Conservation and Evolution]

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ // ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Refs: [7,8,17,29,32,36] Ref 32 has more details of health problems and their causes – ie inbreeding v traits linked to the white gene v bad husbandry.

“For example, I visited the Bristol Zoo’s white tigers in 1968, and at that time they did not have a vaccination program.” [7]“…illustrates that captive breeding and rearing techniques may vary from one institution to another and that mixed

results can have an important impact on statistics used to determine mortality in white tiger offspring”. EM [7]“Some specimens are cross-eyed, a malady in captive, normal colored lions and tigers, and there is also evidence of

feline central retinal degeneration. This is possibly related to reduced pigment formation. In 52 white tiger births, there were four cases of strabismus, all from the four white offspring of Kesari and Tony. Bhim and Sumita were retained and all of their offspring had normal set eyes except one male of their first litter. Because strabismus is of rare occurrence and probably linked to the white coat gene, it is possible that it might be further reduced or even eliminated by selective breeding”. [7]

108 Pure Subspecies v Generic Tigers

FALLACY: White Tigers are useless because they are sub-species hybrids

FACT: Not all are hybrids, and hybrid (ie generic) tigers are valuable genetically

All India’s white tigers are pure bred Bengal tigers [19] , while white tigers in private ownership in USA are assumed to be Bengal/Amur crosses (but not all are necessarily so).

Generic Tigers are ValuableMany people assume that only “pure” subspecies tigers are worth preserving, and that it is “wrong” to breed “generic” (ie crossbred) tigers. Incorrect. Back in the 1980s, it was recommended that TWO types of breeding plans be implemented for tigers: [4]

- The first for the pure bred tigers, with a stud-book, for preserving locality-adapted genotypes with a view to possible reintroduction into those localities at a later date (if the localities still exist as suitable tiger habitat); and…

- The second for generic tigers - valuable for preserving the Tiger species as a whole, and their genetic heterogeneity. This second group of tigers was believed to have much wider genetic diversity than the pure subspecies. Genetic studies more recently have confirmed this genetic variety, showing that the generic tigers contain some gene types lost to the captive subspecies groups (and unreported in wild tigers). [4,12]

With their limited resources, Association zoos could not be expected to manage the 2 breeding programs. It has thus fallen on the private sector to continue with the 2nd program.

How Meaningful is a Subspecies ?“There is a common misperception that subspecies are based on sound scientific principles” [20]

There is divided opinion on how many subspecies of tiger there really are, and if they are meaningful. [2,12,20,33] A study of Bengal, Amur, and Sumatran Tigers found the genetic distance between the 3 subspecies to range from .003 - .010 (mean .007). This is four times less than the genetic distance between human racial groups. [1] There may have been only 3 ssp, not 8, being P.t.tigris - mainland Asia, P.t.virgata – SW Asia (extinct), and P.t.sondaica – Sunda Islands. [34]

Other Valuable HybridsIt should also be noted that the South China Tiger population is suspected to be hybrids with the Indo-Chinese Tiger, not pure-bred P.t.amoyensis. [12,28]

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Refs: [1,2,4,12,20,28,33]

Quote: “…the tiger has a relatively low population genetic diversity, a consequence of relatively recent demographic reductions and/or founder events”. [12]

“Another concern revolves around the issue of species definition. The biological validity of the five extant races, or "subspecies," of tigers (Siberian, Sumatran, Indochinese, Bengal, and South China) is not established. The molecular, electrophoretic and phylogenetic evidence presented at the 1986 International Tiger Symposium indicated no clear nor compelling need to separate the tiger species into its presently referred to subspecies. This present day division of Panthera tigris revolves around geopolitical positions rather than biological distinctions” [33]

119 AZA Recommendations and SSP (Species Survival Plan)

FALLACY: White tigers should not be bred because AZA says not to. [29,30]

FACT: AZA directives apply to AZA zoos, and does not prove that white tigers should not be bred at all.

Zoos worldwide have limited space and resources to hold large carnivores, and to keep a viable captive breeding population of any subspecies requires a fairly large number overall. When the Tiger Species Survival Plan was initiatedin the 1980s/90s, USA Assoc. Zoos decided to concentrate their efforts on preserving 3 of the 5 Tiger subspecies – Amur, Sumatran, and Indochinese. A reasonable decision, given the limited resources. There was no room for Bengal or Bengal cross tigers in this plan, and this is one of the reasons the AZA zoos phased the white tigers out of their breeding programs. [9,10,30]

There has been much disagreement amongst professionals about the “worth” of white tigers, ranging from:

“The white tiger should be viewed as a gift of Nature. It’s conservation is as important as that of the normal tiger” – Roychoudhury [8]

to: “White tigers are freaks. It’s not the role of a zoo to show two-headed calves and white tigers.” – Conway [7] and “…their value to wild tiger conservation is zero… They are also taking up resources and space that could be dedicated to endangered tiger varieties” – Tilson et al [26]

Others, while admitting the worth of the white tiger, recognise the difficulty for the association zoos to manage a healthy breeding program for them with their limited resources. Every white tiger is seen as taking up a slot that could be filled by one of the pure subspecies. [7,10] Zoos can’t do everything – compromises had to be made.

Note that the AZA directive only applies to AZA zoos – it may be the right decision for AZA to not breed white tigers (or any Bengal tigers), but that decision does not prove any inherent lack of value in the white tiger, despite what some of the outspoken critics opine.

AZA directives do not apply to private sector zoos, or to zoos in other countries, eg India.

Note also that there are still 55 white tigers held in 28 AZA accredited zoos in USA [11] (as at 2011 - This is an increase from 18 zoos in 1987 [9]). Apparently these zoos still find value in the white tiger despite AZA’s opinions. [30]

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ // ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Refs: [7,8,9,10,11,26,29,30]

Quote: Simmons: “You justify white tigers in exactly the same way you justify traveling giant pandas, koalas or any other high-visibility animal which, through the ability to catch the public fancy, significantly enhances public support and therefore the financial well-being of your institution…the bottom line realities of life are that long term conservation and propagation programs are accomplished only with stable financial and public support” [9]

The Southeast Missourian, May 25 2005: [30]“The official species survival plan for tigers, a compact among zoos, does not recommend their breeding because they are not pureblooded specimens of any of the five remaining subspecies of tiger. "From my perspective it is irresponsible, if not reprehensible, because they are bringing these animals into the world purposefully for profit," said Ron Tilson, director of conservation at the Minnesota Zoo and coordinator of the Tiger Species Survival Plan.

But Simmons said zoos breed responsibly by periodically crossing white tigers with orange ones to maintain a healthy gene pool."Ron (Tilson) is a good friend but he's a little bit idealistic," Simmons said of his Minnesota colleague. "I absolutely do not have the slightest little guilt feeling" about breeding or displaying white tigers.”

1210 White Tigers Around the World

This report has concentrated on white tigers in USA and India, as most information available pertains to those 2 countries.

There are also white tigers in captivity in many other countries, eg Korea, Buenos Aires, Germany, France, Australia, NZ, UK, China.

Wild White Tigers in HistoryThere is no definitive proof that white tigers occurred in countries other than India (and adjoining countries like Nepal). However, the white tiger does occur in myths from other countries, eg China and Malaysia.

There is also the case of the Maltese Tiger. Harry Caldwell reported the existance of tigers with fur that he described as a delicate shade of “maltese blue” from the Fujian province of China. [15] White tigers’ fur contains an enzyme that causes it to darken with lower temperatures – a feature they share with Siamese cats and Himalayan rabbits. [11] Could this darkening create the “maltese” (ie bluish gray) appearance of the Fujian tigers ? If so, it could be evidence that the white tiger of China was not just a myth. However, the Fujian province today has a warm humid climate, so this theory would rely on the Maltese Tiger being a relic from other, colder areas or times.

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1311. Conservation and Evolution

It is often stated that the white tiger has no value to conservation. Conservation involves protecting the status quo – the habitat and species that already exist. With this definition, it is arguable that the white tiger does not contribute directly to current tiger conservation projects, ie the Tiger Species Survival Plan subspecies. The white tiger does not directly aid, for example, Sumatran tiger conservation, although it is a part of Bengal tiger conservation.

However, conservation is not Nature’s only means for survival. Conditions change, species mutate and evolve.

The earth has been in a flux of glacial (ice age) and interglacial stages for 1000’s of years. The latest interglacial began around 11,000 years ago. The tiger has been around for approx 2 million years, adapting and surviving through vastly different climates. Is the white tiger a relic from previous ice ages ? Is the gene an adaptation to changing climates today ? As the tigers’ traditional habitat is decreased and degraded, is the white gene Nature’s insurance policy to enable the tiger to live in changing conditions ? We have so little information about the tiger’s history – perhaps 100 years worth of decent records, out of 2 million years which can only be pieced together by the paleobiologist and geneticist.

Similar occurrences may be seen in other white animals. For example, Polar Bears evolved from brown bears, and genome studies have shown that they continued to interbreed with brown bears. It is thought that their evolution was closely tied to climate change. Today, along with the fears that polar bear habitat is disappearing at an alarming rate, polar bears have again been observed interbreeding with grizzly bears. The offspring is fertile. Is this Nature’s way of preserving the polar bear genes, by mingling them into the brown bear populations ? Did a similar thing happen with white tigers ?

These questions do not yet have definitive answers. One thing we do know, is that Man has overrun most of the wild habitat once available to tigers, and their survival rests in our hands. It would be premature to “throw away” the white gene without fully understanding it’s significance throughout a larger time scale than a mere 100 years.

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Refs: http://science.psu.edu/news-and-events/2012-news/SchusterMiller7-2012http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/polar-bears-and-grizzlies-producing-hybrid-offspring-as-arctic-melts-a-859218.html

14Conclusion

The white tiger is “part of genetic diversity of tigers that is worth conserving.” [36]

The white tiger is a natural colour variant of Panthera tigris. It survived in the wild for over a hundred years (that we know of), perhaps much longer. They were inbred in captivity in the past, but this practice is harmful, unnecessary, and not continued by responsible breeders today.There are several unrelated lineages carrying the white gene, and it is also possible to outcross with unrelated orange tigers.

The white tiger is a natural part of the tiger’s genetic variation and the gene should be preserved. A ‘generic’ white tiger (ie cross between Amur/Bengal subspecies) is still a valuable addition to the tiger species genepool – there is even doubt that the currently used subspecies distinctions are valid.

White tiger breeding occurs in many zoos around the world – some associations have decided not to breed them, others have decided to continue. Opinions differ, and the decision made by one group of zoos does not have to be imposed on others.

15References1 Setting the Molecular Clock in Felidae – O’Brien, Collier et al. tw1(1987)2 Use of Electrophoretic Data in the Reevaluation of Tiger Systematics – Goebel,Whitmore.tw1 3 The Siberian Tiger in the USSR – Spitsin, Romanov, Popov & Smirnov tw1(1987)4 Supspecies and the Conservation of Panthera tigris – Herrington tw1(1987)5 Status and Problems of Captive Tigers in China – Bangjie tw1(1987)6 Clinical Management of Captive Tigers – Bush, Phillips, Montali tw1(1987)7 White Tiger: Phantom or Freak ? – Maruska tw1(1987)8 White Tigers and Their Conservation – Roychoudhury tw1(1987)9 White Tigers: The Realities – Simmons tw1(1987)10 White Tigers and Species Survival Plans – Latinen tw1(1987)11 http://www.truthaboutwhitetigers.com/whitetigerreport.pdf12 What is a Tiger? Genetics & Phylogeography – Luo et al. tw2 (2010)13 Maneaters of Kumaon – Jim Corbett (1944)14 Kailash Sankala - Tiger! The Story of the Indian Tiger (1977) 15 Blue Tiger – Harry Caldwell16 Tigers Take “Night Shift” to Dodge Humans http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-1946475117 http://www.felineconservation.org/fcf/9_generations_of_white_tigers.htm18 Richard Lydekker – Cats (c1907)19 Studbook of White Tigers in Indian Zoos – Roychoudhury (1989)20 What is a Tiger? Biogeography, Morphology and taxonomy – Kitchener, Yamaguchi tw221 Lost Land of the Tiger – BBC film22 http://tigertribe.net/tigers-origin/white-and-coloured-tigers/ (Includes pic from Akbarnama)23 http://www.whitelions.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=6724 Big Cats and Their Fossil Relatives – Turner (1997)25 The Science and Art of Managing Tigers in captivity – Traylor-Holzer. tw2 (2010)26 Thirteen Thousand and Counting: How Growing captive Tiger Populations Threaten Wild Tigers – Tilson, Nyhus, Hutchins. tw2 (2010)27 Inbreeding in White Tigers – Roychoudhury & Sankhala (1978)28 Reintroduction of the Chinese Tiger – Breitenmoser,Tilson,Nyhus (2006)29 AZA White Paper - Welfare and Conservation Implications of Intentional Breeding For the Expression of Rare Recessive Alleles (2011) 30 “Black and White Issue” in The Southeast Missourian – May 25, 200531 http://www.messybeast.com/genetics/tigers-white.htm for records of white tigers in wild32 http://www.messybeast.com/genetics/tigers-inbreeding.htm 33 Management and Conservation of Captive Tigers – Tilson et al (1994)34 Riding the Tiger: Tiger Conservation in Human-Dominated Landscapes – Seidensticker et al 199935 Loewe, L. (2008) Genetic mutation. Nature Education 1(1):113 http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/genetic-mutation-112736 R Prasad, White Bengal Tiger Enigma Solved. The Hindu, May 24 2013 http://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/energy-and-environment/white-bengal-tiger-enigma-solved/article4743639.ece37 The Genetic Basis of White Tigers, Shu-Jin Luo et al. Current Biology - 3 June 2013. http://www.cell.com/current-biology/retrieve/pii/S0960982213004958#Summary38 R Prasad, White Tiger Numbers can be Increased without Inbreeding. The Hindu, May 24 2013 http://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/energy-and-environment/white-tiger-numbers-can-be-increased-without-inbreeding/article4745897.ece

16Recommended Reading

tw1 – Tigers of the World – The Biology, Biopolitics, Management, and Conservation of an Endangered Species. 1st Ed. Tilson,Seal. (1987)

tw2 – Tigers of the World – The Science, Politics, and Conservation of Panthera Tigris. 2nd ed. Tilson,Nyhus (2010).

Tiger! The Story of the Indian Tiger – Kailash Sankhala

R Prasad, White Bengal Tiger Enigma Solved. The Hindu, May 24 2013 http://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/energy-and-environment/white-bengal-tiger-enigma-solved/article4743639.ece