Cold War & RecoveryCold War & Recovery

1945-19681945-1968

Roots of Cold WarRoots of Cold War Teheran ConferenceTeheran Conference, 1943: USSR guaranteed to be , 1943: USSR guaranteed to be

only power to liberate Eastern Europeonly power to liberate Eastern Europe Yalta ConferenceYalta Conference, 1945: , 1945: Stalin pledged to allow democratic elections in E. Europe Stalin pledged to allow democratic elections in E. Europe

(but later reneged)(but later reneged) Germany would be divided into four zones controlled by Germany would be divided into four zones controlled by

U.S., France, Britain and USSRU.S., France, Britain and USSR After war, Soviets dominated their zone and did not allow After war, Soviets dominated their zone and did not allow

reunification of Germanyreunification of Germany Potsdam ConferencePotsdam Conference, 1945: , 1945: Truman demanded free elections in Eastern Europe but Truman demanded free elections in Eastern Europe but

Stalin refusedStalin refused Stalin wanted a "buffer zone" between Germany and Stalin wanted a "buffer zone" between Germany and

USSR for protection against future warUSSR for protection against future war

Roots of Cold WarRoots of Cold War

U.S. point of viewU.S. point of view:: Stalin seemed intent on creating Stalin seemed intent on creating ""spheres" of spheres" of

influenceinfluence in Eastern Europe in Eastern Europe Broke pledges at Yalta; refused to allow Broke pledges at Yalta; refused to allow

reunification of Germanyreunification of Germany Churchhill's "Churchhill's "Iron CurtainIron Curtain" " speech in 1946 speech in 1946

alerted Americans to a future conflict alerted Americans to a future conflict U.S. wanted democracy spread throughout the U.S. wanted democracy spread throughout the

world with a strong international organization to world with a strong international organization to maintain global peacemaintain global peace

Roots of Cold WarRoots of Cold War Soviet point of viewSoviet point of view:: Democracies traditionally hostile towards communism Democracies traditionally hostile towards communism

and the USSRand the USSR e.g., Archangel expedition during WWI; non-e.g., Archangel expedition during WWI; non-

recognition by U.S. until 1933recognition by U.S. until 1933 US & Britain did not open western front in Europe early US & Britain did not open western front in Europe early

enough; millions of Soviet soldiers were dying fighting enough; millions of Soviet soldiers were dying fighting the brunt of Nazi armies alone until mid-1944.the brunt of Nazi armies alone until mid-1944.

The US and Britain froze Russia out of the atomic bomb The US and Britain froze Russia out of the atomic bomb project. project.

US terminated lend-lease to Moscow in May 1945 but US terminated lend-lease to Moscow in May 1945 but gave Britain aid until 1946.gave Britain aid until 1946.

Wanted "buffer zone" for the Soviet western border esp. Wanted "buffer zone" for the Soviet western border esp. in Polandin Poland

Partition of GermanyPartition of Germany

USSR, U.S., Britain & France would each USSR, U.S., Britain & France would each occupy a part of Germany but would allow for occupy a part of Germany but would allow for German reunification once she was no longer a German reunification once she was no longer a threat.threat.

Germany was to pay heavy reparations to USSR Germany was to pay heavy reparations to USSR in form of agricultural and industrial goods.in form of agricultural and industrial goods.

Soviets dominated their Eastern German zoneSoviets dominated their Eastern German zone Did not want revitalized Germany that could Did not want revitalized Germany that could

once again pose a threat.once again pose a threat. Stripped E. Germany of much of its resources.Stripped E. Germany of much of its resources.

Partition of GermanyPartition of Germany

U.S. and W. Europeans felt German economy U.S. and W. Europeans felt German economy vital to recovery of Europevital to recovery of Europe

1949, 1949, West GermanyWest Germany became an independent became an independent country when US, France and Britain gave back country when US, France and Britain gave back each of their zoneseach of their zones

Federal Republic of GermanyFederal Republic of Germany – led by – led by Konrad Konrad AdenauerAdenauer

1949, 1949, East Germany East Germany formally established – formally established – Democratic Republic of GermanyDemocratic Republic of Germany led by led by Walter Ulbricht (1883-1973)Walter Ulbricht (1883-1973); communist regime ; communist regime influenced by Moscowinfluenced by Moscow

"Containment""Containment"

By 1947, US pledged to prevent further By 1947, US pledged to prevent further spread of communismspread of communism

Truman DoctrineTruman Doctrine, 1947: U.S. gave aid to , 1947: U.S. gave aid to Greece and Turkey to defeat communist Greece and Turkey to defeat communist forces there.forces there.

Marshall PlanMarshall Plan

1947: Massive aid package to help war-torn 1947: Massive aid package to help war-torn Europe recover from the warEurope recover from the war

Purpose: prevent communism from spreading Purpose: prevent communism from spreading into economically devastated regionsinto economically devastated regions

Result: Western and Central Europe recovered Result: Western and Central Europe recovered economically -- the "economic miracle"economically -- the "economic miracle"

Soviets refused to allow U.S. aid to countries in Soviets refused to allow U.S. aid to countries in eastern Europeeastern Europe

Berlin CrisisBerlin Crisis (1948-49)(1948-49)

Soviets attempted to remove Allies from Soviets attempted to remove Allies from Berlin by cutting off accessBerlin by cutting off access

One of high tension points of the Cold One of high tension points of the Cold War; World War III?War; World War III?

U.S. instituted a massive airlift; Soviets U.S. instituted a massive airlift; Soviets lifted blockade in 1949 (Berlin Airlift)lifted blockade in 1949 (Berlin Airlift)

More ContainmentMore Containment

North Atlantic Treaty OrganizationNorth Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)(NATO) formed in 1949 formed in 1949

Collective security organization consisting Collective security organization consisting of democracies in Europe, U.S. & Canada of democracies in Europe, U.S. & Canada to prevent against Soviet expansion in to prevent against Soviet expansion in Europe.Europe.

Radio Free EuropeRadio Free Europe & & Voice of AmericaVoice of America set up to send pro-democracy messages set up to send pro-democracy messages to countries behind the "iron curtain"to countries behind the "iron curtain"

Eastern BlocEastern Bloc Countries in Eastern Europe dominated by Soviet Union after Countries in Eastern Europe dominated by Soviet Union after

WWIIWWII Included Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Included Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, East Germany,

Rumania, BulgariaRumania, Bulgaria Communist parties of eastern Europe established one-party Communist parties of eastern Europe established one-party

states by 1948, with help of Red Army and KGB (Soviet states by 1948, with help of Red Army and KGB (Soviet secret police)secret police)

Only Yugoslavia, led by Only Yugoslavia, led by Marshal TitoMarshal Tito, is not dominated by , is not dominated by SovietsSoviets

Postwar economic recovery in eastern Europe proceeded Postwar economic recovery in eastern Europe proceeded along Soviet lines.along Soviet lines.

Changes went forward at slow & uneven pace; came to Changes went forward at slow & uneven pace; came to almost a halt by the mid-1960s.almost a halt by the mid-1960s.

Five-year plans in USSR reintroduced to tackle massive Five-year plans in USSR reintroduced to tackle massive economic reconstructioneconomic reconstruction

Eastern BlocEastern Bloc

Stalin reinstitutes oppressive ruleStalin reinstitutes oppressive rule Great Patriotic War of the Fatherland had fostered Great Patriotic War of the Fatherland had fostered

Russian nationalism and a relaxation of dictatorial terror.Russian nationalism and a relaxation of dictatorial terror. Stalin’s new foe, the U.S., provided an excuse for re-Stalin’s new foe, the U.S., provided an excuse for re-

establishing harsh dictatorship.establishing harsh dictatorship. After war, Stalin repressed millions of Soviet citizens After war, Stalin repressed millions of Soviet citizens

living outside Soviet borders when the war ended.living outside Soviet borders when the war ended. Stalin revived many forced labor camp, which had Stalin revived many forced labor camp, which had

accounted for roughly 1/6 of all new construction in accounted for roughly 1/6 of all new construction in Soviet Union before the warSoviet Union before the war

Culture and art were also purgedCulture and art were also purged

CzechoslovakiaCzechoslovakia

Czechoslovakia the economic exception in E. Czechoslovakia the economic exception in E. Europe: industrialized, strong middle class and Europe: industrialized, strong middle class and industrial working class and experience of industrial working class and experience of political democracy between the wars.political democracy between the wars.

During “dualist period", During “dualist period", President BenesPresident Benes and and Foreign minister Foreign minister Jan MasarykJan Masaryk proposed to proposed to govern a social democracy while maintaining govern a social democracy while maintaining close voluntary relations with the USSR.close voluntary relations with the USSR.

In response to Marshall Plan in 1947, Stalin In response to Marshall Plan in 1947, Stalin replaced gov’t in 1948 with 1-party communist replaced gov’t in 1948 with 1-party communist rule to prevent nation from courting the West.rule to prevent nation from courting the West.

USSR under Nikita USSR under Nikita KhrushchevKhrushchev (1894-1971)(1894-1971)

KhrushchevKhrushchev

Power struggle emerged after Stalin died in Power struggle emerged after Stalin died in 1953; Khrushchev emerged a few years later1953; Khrushchev emerged a few years later

Stalin’s heirs realized reforms were needed.Stalin’s heirs realized reforms were needed. Widespread fear and hatred of Stalin’s political terror Widespread fear and hatred of Stalin’s political terror

resulted in reduction of power of secret police and resulted in reduction of power of secret police and gradual closure of forced labor camps.gradual closure of forced labor camps.

Agriculture in bad shape.Agriculture in bad shape. Shortages of consumer goods.Shortages of consumer goods. Hard work and initiative in decline due to poor living Hard work and initiative in decline due to poor living

conditions.conditions.

De-StalinizationDe-Stalinization

XXth Party CongressXXth Party Congress, 1956, 1956: Khrushchev took : Khrushchev took startling initiative against hard-liners by startling initiative against hard-liners by denouncing Stalin’s crimes in a closed session.denouncing Stalin’s crimes in a closed session.

Secret anti-Stalin speech probably most Secret anti-Stalin speech probably most influential statement in Russia since Lenin influential statement in Russia since Lenin addressed the crowd on arriving in April 1917.addressed the crowd on arriving in April 1917.

GosplanGosplan: : Resources shifted from heavy Resources shifted from heavy industry and the military toward consumer goods industry and the military toward consumer goods and agriculture – Centralized Economic Planning and agriculture – Centralized Economic Planning

De-StalinizationDe-Stalinization

Great ferment in the arts (anti-Stalinist views Great ferment in the arts (anti-Stalinist views tolerated)tolerated)

Boris PasternakBoris Pasternak (1890-1960) wrote (1890-1960) wrote Dr. ZhivagoDr. Zhivago in 1956.in 1956. Story of prerevolutionary intellectual who rejects Story of prerevolutionary intellectual who rejects

brutality of revolution of 1917 & Stalinism; even as he brutality of revolution of 1917 & Stalinism; even as he is destroyed, he triumphs from his humanity and is destroyed, he triumphs from his humanity and Christian spirit.Christian spirit.

Aleksandr SolzenitsynAleksandr Solzenitsyn: : One Day in the Life of One Day in the Life of Ivan DenisovichIvan Denisovich (1962) (1962) Portrays in grim detail life in Stalinist concentration Portrays in grim detail life in Stalinist concentration

camp (he had been a prisoner)camp (he had been a prisoner)

De-StalinizationDe-Stalinization

De-Stalinization resulted in communist reformers De-Stalinization resulted in communist reformers and the masses seeking greater liberty and and the masses seeking greater liberty and national independence.national independence.

PolandPoland: March 1956, riots resulted in release of : March 1956, riots resulted in release of more than 9000 political prisoners, including more than 9000 political prisoners, including previously purged leader previously purged leader Wladyslaw GomulkaWladyslaw Gomulka..

Gomulka skillfully managed to win greater Gomulka skillfully managed to win greater autonomy for Poland while keeping anti-Soviet autonomy for Poland while keeping anti-Soviet feeling at bay.feeling at bay.

Hungarian UprisingHungarian Uprising 19561956

Students and workers in Budapest installed a Students and workers in Budapest installed a liberal Communist reformer, liberal Communist reformer, Imre NagyImre Nagy as new as new chief in October 1956.chief in October 1956.

Hungarian nationalists staged huge Hungarian nationalists staged huge demonstrations demanding non-communist demonstrations demanding non-communist parties be legalized; turned into armed rebellion parties be legalized; turned into armed rebellion and spread throughout the country.and spread throughout the country.

Hoped U.S. would come in and help achieve Hoped U.S. would come in and help achieve Hungarian independenceHungarian independence

Hungarian UprisingHungarian Uprising 19561956 Soviet tanks and troops Soviet tanks and troops

responded by invading Hungary responded by invading Hungary and crushing the national and crushing the national democratic revolution.democratic revolution.

János Kádár installed firm János Kádár installed firm communist rulecommunist rule

After Hungarian invasion, most After Hungarian invasion, most eastern Europeans hoped for eastern Europeans hoped for small domestic gains while small domestic gains while obediently following USSR in obediently following USSR in foreign affairs.foreign affairs.

Post-War Political and Economic Post-War Political and Economic FrameworkFramework

Bretton Woods ConferenceBretton Woods Conference (1944): created (1944): created International Monetary Fund (IMF)International Monetary Fund (IMF)

Lay foundations for modern monetary system; based on Lay foundations for modern monetary system; based on U.S. dollarU.S. dollar

IMF (World Bank)IMF (World Bank) designed to loan money to struggling designed to loan money to struggling countries to prevent economic crises and anarchy; countries to prevent economic crises and anarchy; instrumental in post-war economic boom.instrumental in post-war economic boom.

United NationsUnited Nations created in 1945: created in 1945: Security CouncilSecurity Council (12 (12 nations including 5 permanent members had powers to nations including 5 permanent members had powers to act; act; General AssemblyGeneral Assembly had powers to advise (included had powers to advise (included all nations of the world)all nations of the world)

Western Europe Political Western Europe Political RecoveryRecovery

Economic hardship after WWIIEconomic hardship after WWII: scarcity of : scarcity of food, runaway inflation, black marketsfood, runaway inflation, black markets

Many people believed Europe was Many people believed Europe was finished.finished.

Suffering was worst in GermanySuffering was worst in Germany

Western Europe Political Western Europe Political RecoveryRecovery

Political restructuringPolitical restructuring Christian DemocratsChristian Democrats inspired by common Christian and inspired by common Christian and

European heritage.European heritage. Rejected authoritarianism & narrow nationalism; had Rejected authoritarianism & narrow nationalism; had

faith in democracy and cooperation.faith in democracy and cooperation. Catholic parties also progressive in natureCatholic parties also progressive in nature SocialistsSocialists and and CommunistsCommunists also emerged with also emerged with

increased power and prestige, especially in France and increased power and prestige, especially in France and Italy.Italy.

Pushed for social change and economic reform with Pushed for social change and economic reform with considerable success.considerable success.

Result: social reform and political transformation created Result: social reform and political transformation created foundations for a great European renaissance.foundations for a great European renaissance.

Western Europe Political Western Europe Political Recovery - ItalyRecovery - Italy

Christian Democrats gained control in Christian Democrats gained control in 1946 led by 1946 led by Alcide De GasperiAlcide De Gasperi

Socialist influence: social benefits came to Socialist influence: social benefits came to equal a large part of the average worker’s equal a large part of the average worker’s wageswages

Western Europe Political Western Europe Political Recovery - FranceRecovery - France

General General Charles De GaulleCharles De Gaulle, inspiring wartime , inspiring wartime leader of Free French, re-established free and leader of Free French, re-established free and democratic democratic Fourth RepublicFourth Republic (resigned in 1949) (resigned in 1949)

Catholic partyCatholic party provided some of best postwar provided some of best postwar leaders e.g. leaders e.g. Robert SchumanRobert Schuman

Socialist influence: large banks, insurance Socialist influence: large banks, insurance companies, public utilities, coal mines, and the companies, public utilities, coal mines, and the Renault auto company were nationalized by Renault auto company were nationalized by gov’t.gov’t.

Britain followed same trendBritain followed same trend

Western Europe Political Western Europe Political Recovery - West GermanyRecovery - West Germany

1949, 1949, Konrad AdenauerKonrad Adenauer began long, began long, highly successful democratic rule.highly successful democratic rule.

Christian DemocratsChristian Democrats became West became West Germany’s majority party for a generationGermany’s majority party for a generation

Western Europe Political Western Europe Political Recovery – Great BritainRecovery – Great Britain

Clement AttleeClement Attlee, socialist , socialist Labour partyLabour party leader, defeated Winston Churchill and the leader, defeated Winston Churchill and the Conservatives in 1945.Conservatives in 1945.

Attlee moved toward establishment of a Attlee moved toward establishment of a “welfare state.”“welfare state.”

Many industries nationalized, gov’t Many industries nationalized, gov’t provided each citizen with free medical provided each citizen with free medical service and taxed the middle and upper service and taxed the middle and upper classes more heavily.classes more heavily.

““Economic Miracle”Economic Miracle”

Unprecedented economic growth in Unprecedented economic growth in European historyEuropean history

Europe entered period of rapid economic Europe entered period of rapid economic progress lasting into late 1960s.progress lasting into late 1960s.

By 1963, western Europe produced more By 1963, western Europe produced more than 2.5X more than before the war.than 2.5X more than before the war.

““Economic Miracle”Economic Miracle” CausesCauses:: Marshall Plan aid helped western Europe begin recovery Marshall Plan aid helped western Europe begin recovery

in 1947in 1947 Korean War in 1950 stimulated economic activity.Korean War in 1950 stimulated economic activity. Economic growth became a basic objective of all western Economic growth became a basic objective of all western

European governments.European governments. Governments accepted Governments accepted KeynesianKeynesian economics to stimulate economics to stimulate

their economies.their economies. Germany and France were especially successful and Germany and France were especially successful and

influential.influential. In most countries many people willing to work hard for low In most countries many people willing to work hard for low

wages; expanding industries benefited.wages; expanding industries benefited. Increased demand for consumer goods.Increased demand for consumer goods. Many economic barriers eliminated and a large unified Many economic barriers eliminated and a large unified

market emerged: Common Market.market emerged: Common Market.

““Economic Miracle”Economic Miracle”

German economic recovery led by finance German economic recovery led by finance minister Ludwig Erhardminister Ludwig Erhard

Combined free-market economy & Combined free-market economy & extensive social welfare network inherited extensive social welfare network inherited from Nazi era.from Nazi era.

By late 1950s, West Germany had robust By late 1950s, West Germany had robust economy, full employment, a strong economy, full employment, a strong currency and stable prices.currency and stable prices.

““Economic Miracle”Economic Miracle”

FranceFrance Combined flexible planning and a “mixed” state Combined flexible planning and a “mixed” state

and private economy to achieve most rapid and private economy to achieve most rapid economic development in its history.economic development in its history.

Jean MonnetJean Monnet:: economic pragmatist and architect economic pragmatist and architect of European unity.of European unity.

France used Marshall Plan aid money and the France used Marshall Plan aid money and the nationalized banks to funnel money into key nationalized banks to funnel money into key industries, several of which were state owned.industries, several of which were state owned.

European UnityEuropean Unity

Council of Europe:Council of Europe: Created in 1948 Created in 1948

European federalists hoped Council would European federalists hoped Council would quickly evolve into a true European quickly evolve into a true European parliament with sovereign rights, but this parliament with sovereign rights, but this did not happen.did not happen.

Britain, with its empire and its “special Britain, with its empire and its “special relationship” with U.S., opposed giving any relationship” with U.S., opposed giving any real political power—real political power—sovereigntysovereignty—to the —to the council.council.

Schuman PlanSchuman Plan 1950 created the 1950 created the European Coal and Steel European Coal and Steel

CommunityCommunity Put forth by French statesman Jean Monnet and Foreign Put forth by French statesman Jean Monnet and Foreign

Minister Robert Schuman.Minister Robert Schuman. Special international organization to control & integrate Special international organization to control & integrate

European steel and coal production.European steel and coal production. West Germany, Italy, Belgium, Netherlands, & West Germany, Italy, Belgium, Netherlands, &

Luxembourg accepted in 1952; Britain refused to enterLuxembourg accepted in 1952; Britain refused to enter Immediate economic goal: a single competitive market Immediate economic goal: a single competitive market

w/o national tariffs or quotas.w/o national tariffs or quotas. ""The SixThe Six":": By 1958 coal and steel moved freely among By 1958 coal and steel moved freely among

six nations of the European Coal and Steel Community six nations of the European Coal and Steel Community Far-reaching political goal: bind six member nations so Far-reaching political goal: bind six member nations so

closely together economically that war among them closely together economically that war among them would become unthinkable and virtually impossible.would become unthinkable and virtually impossible.

European Economic Community European Economic Community (EEC)(EEC)

Treaty of Rome, 1957Treaty of Rome, 1957 Created Created European Economic Community (EEC) European Economic Community (EEC) or the or the

Common MarketCommon Market Signed by same six nations in the Schuman Plan – Signed by same six nations in the Schuman Plan – “the “the

Six”Six” First goal of treaty: Gradual reduction of all tariffs among First goal of treaty: Gradual reduction of all tariffs among

the Six in order to create a single market almost as large the Six in order to create a single market almost as large as the U.S.as the U.S.

Other goalsOther goals: : Free movement of capital and labor.Free movement of capital and labor. Common economic policies and institutions.Common economic policies and institutions. Tariffs were rapidly reduced and regions specialized in Tariffs were rapidly reduced and regions specialized in

what they did best.what they did best.

European Economic Community European Economic Community (EEC)(EEC)

EEC encouraged hopes of political and EEC encouraged hopes of political and economic union.economic union.

Union frustrated in 1960s by resurgence of Union frustrated in 1960s by resurgence of more traditional nationalism.more traditional nationalism.

EuratomEuratom (European Atomic Energy (European Atomic Energy Agency) also created by agency.Agency) also created by agency.

Communist states responded by forming Communist states responded by forming their own economic association--their own economic association--COMECONCOMECON

France Steps Back from European France Steps Back from European Unity Unity

Bitter colonial war in Algeria resulted in the Bitter colonial war in Algeria resulted in the election in 1958 of election in 1958 of General De GaulleGeneral De Gaulle who who established the established the Fifth French RepublicFifth French Republic and and ruled as president until 1969.ruled as president until 1969.

Withdrew France from "US controlled" NATO Withdrew France from "US controlled" NATO and developed own nuclear weapons program.and developed own nuclear weapons program.

De Gaulle twice vetoed application of pro-De Gaulle twice vetoed application of pro-American British to European Union.American British to European Union.

Britain did not inter until 1973.Britain did not inter until 1973.

Cold War in the 1950’sCold War in the 1950’s

EventsEvents

1949, Communists in China led by 1949, Communists in China led by Mao Mao ZedongZedong win Chinese revolution win Chinese revolution

Establish Establish "Peoples Republic of China""Peoples Republic of China" ("Red China")("Red China")

1949, Soviets successfully test atomic 1949, Soviets successfully test atomic bombbomb

Korean War 1950-1953Korean War 1950-1953

After WWII, Korea divided at 38th parallel: North was After WWII, Korea divided at 38th parallel: North was communist, South was notcommunist, South was not

CauseCause: 1950, North Korea invaded South Korea : 1950, North Korea invaded South Korea (supported by Soviet resources)(supported by Soviet resources)

UN (led by US & UN (led by US & Gen. Douglas MacArthurGen. Douglas MacArthur) sent forces ) sent forces to push back communiststo push back communists

Soviets boycotting UN for U.S. refusal to allow "Red Soviets boycotting UN for U.S. refusal to allow "Red China" into UN Security CouncilChina" into UN Security Council

China sends hundreds of thousands of troops to push China sends hundreds of thousands of troops to push back UNback UN

ResultResult: cease-fire and border at 38th parallel restored; : cease-fire and border at 38th parallel restored; still in existence todaystill in existence today

Korean WarKorean War

Hydrogen BombHydrogen Bomb

Developed by US in 1952 & USSR in 1953: Developed by US in 1952 & USSR in 1953: world now has two world now has two superpowerssuperpowers

Warsaw PactWarsaw Pact 1955 1955

Collective security organization of eastern bloc Collective security organization of eastern bloc nations to counter NATO.nations to counter NATO.

U.S. policy of U.S. policy of "massive retaliation""massive retaliation" between between 1953-551953-55

U.S. policy now is to help eastern European U.S. policy now is to help eastern European countries remove communism.countries remove communism.

U.S. vows to destroy USSR with nuclear U.S. vows to destroy USSR with nuclear weapons if it tries to expandweapons if it tries to expand

BrinksmanshipBrinksmanship: the art of going to the brink of : the art of going to the brink of war to force the other side t back down.war to force the other side t back down.

Relations b/n USSR & U.S. Relations b/n USSR & U.S. Improve w/ Ascension to power of Improve w/ Ascension to power of

Nikita KhrushchevNikita Khrushchev Seeks Seeks ““peaceful coexistencepeaceful coexistence”” with the with the

West in order to focus on Soviet economyWest in order to focus on Soviet economy Austrian IndependenceAustrian Independence: USSR agreed in : USSR agreed in

1955 to real independence for a neutral 1955 to real independence for a neutral Austria after 10 years of Allied occupation.Austria after 10 years of Allied occupation.

Resulted in significant reduction in cold Resulted in significant reduction in cold war tensions between 1955 & 1957.war tensions between 1955 & 1957.

Relations b/n USSR & U.S. Relations b/n USSR & U.S. Improve w/ Ascension to power of Improve w/ Ascension to power of

Nikita KhrushchevNikita Khrushchev Krushchev sought to prove communism was superior to Krushchev sought to prove communism was superior to

capitalism and the USSR would be the model communist capitalism and the USSR would be the model communist state in the world; state in the world; "we will bury you.”"we will bury you.”

Krushchev began wooing new nations of Asia and Africa Krushchev began wooing new nations of Asia and Africa with promises and aid, even if they were not communist.with promises and aid, even if they were not communist.

Geneva SummitGeneva Summit -- 1955 -- 1955 (July)(July) US meets with USSR, Britain, & France to begin US meets with USSR, Britain, & France to begin

discussions on European security and disarmament; no discussions on European security and disarmament; no agreements madeagreements made

1958, relations sour with Khrushchev's ultimatum for 1958, relations sour with Khrushchev's ultimatum for Allies to leave Berlin: 6 month deadline passes without Allies to leave Berlin: 6 month deadline passes without incident, extended indefinitely incident, extended indefinitely

Cold War in 1960’sCold War in 1960’s

U-2 IncidentU-2 Incident

U.S. spy plane shot U.S. spy plane shot down over USSRdown over USSR

Khrushchev Khrushchev demanded an demanded an apology from apology from Eisenhower; Eisenhower; Eisenhower refusedEisenhower refused

Khrushchev and Khrushchev and Eisenhower abortedEisenhower aborted

Berlin Wall: Berlin Wall: Built in 1961 Built in 1961

2 million East Germans escaped to West Berlin 2 million East Germans escaped to West Berlin between 1949-1961; Soviets frustratedbetween 1949-1961; Soviets frustrated

Khrushchev threatened President Kennedy: Khrushchev threatened President Kennedy: USSR would sign peace treaty with East USSR would sign peace treaty with East Germany who would then control access to Germany who would then control access to Berlin; Soviets would protect East Germany’s Berlin; Soviets would protect East Germany’s right to control flow into Berlin.right to control flow into Berlin.

Berlin Wall built instead of enforcing ultimatum to Berlin Wall built instead of enforcing ultimatum to U.S.; ended future crises over BerlinU.S.; ended future crises over Berlin

Berlin WallBerlin Wall

Cuba Cuba

Became a communist country in 1959 Became a communist country in 1959 under leadership of under leadership of Fidel CastroFidel Castro

Cuba became an ally of the Soviet UnionCuba became an ally of the Soviet Union Bay of Pigs InvasionBay of Pigs Invasion, 1961: U.S.-trained , 1961: U.S.-trained

Cuban exiles tried unsuccessfully to Cuban exiles tried unsuccessfully to invade Cubainvade Cuba

Cuban Missile CrisisCuban Missile Crisis

1962: U.S. demanded Soviets remove their 1962: U.S. demanded Soviets remove their newly installed nuclear missiles from Cuba.newly installed nuclear missiles from Cuba.

Crisis became the closest USSR and US came Crisis became the closest USSR and US came to nuclear warto nuclear war

U.S. placed blockade (naval quarantine) on any U.S. placed blockade (naval quarantine) on any further missiles into Cubafurther missiles into Cuba

Khrushchev agreed to remove missiles in return Khrushchev agreed to remove missiles in return for U.S. removing its missiles from Turkey and for U.S. removing its missiles from Turkey and vowing not to invade Cuba in the future.vowing not to invade Cuba in the future.

Crisis weakened Khrushchev and contributed to Crisis weakened Khrushchev and contributed to his downfall in 1964his downfall in 1964

Cuban Missile CrisisCuban Missile Crisis

Nuclear Test Ban TreatyNuclear Test Ban Treaty 19631963

Khrushchev, Kennedy & Britain signed historic Khrushchev, Kennedy & Britain signed historic treaty banning atmospheric testing in an attempt treaty banning atmospheric testing in an attempt to reduce Cold War tensionsto reduce Cold War tensions

France refused to sign (was in the process of France refused to sign (was in the process of developing own nuclear weapons program)developing own nuclear weapons program)

China became a nuclear power in 1964 leading China became a nuclear power in 1964 leading to its estrangement with Soviet Union to its estrangement with Soviet Union

Fall of Khrushchev 1964Fall of Khrushchev 1964

His cold war foreign policies erratic & ultimately His cold war foreign policies erratic & ultimately unsuccessful (Berlin, Cuban Missile Crisis)unsuccessful (Berlin, Cuban Missile Crisis)

Expensive space and armaments programs Expensive space and armaments programs postponed any significant shift to consumer postponed any significant shift to consumer goods.goods.

Most important reason: agricultural projects Most important reason: agricultural projects backfiredbackfired

Resurgence of conservative Stalinists led to Resurgence of conservative Stalinists led to quiet removal of Khrushchev in October, 1964quiet removal of Khrushchev in October, 1964

Leonid BrezhnevLeonid Brezhnev Became new General Secretary (1964-1982)Became new General Secretary (1964-1982) Beginning in 1964, USSR began a period of Beginning in 1964, USSR began a period of

stagnation and limited re-Stalinizationstagnation and limited re-Stalinization Massive arms buildup started in response to Massive arms buildup started in response to

humiliation of Cuban Missile Crisis.humiliation of Cuban Missile Crisis.

USSR avoided direct USSR avoided direct confrontation with the U.S. and confrontation with the U.S. and seemed more committed to seemed more committed to peaceful coexistence than peaceful coexistence than Khrushchev had been.Khrushchev had been.

Vietnam War (1964-1973)Vietnam War (1964-1973)

U.S. fought unsuccessful war in Southeast U.S. fought unsuccessful war in Southeast Asia to prevent communism from Asia to prevent communism from spreading into South Vietnam.spreading into South Vietnam.

““Domino TheoryDomino Theory””: U.S. believed if : U.S. believed if Vietnam fell to communism, Laos, Vietnam fell to communism, Laos, Cambodia and Thailand would also fall Cambodia and Thailand would also fall (perhaps even India) (1964-1973)(perhaps even India) (1964-1973)

SOCIETY AFTER SOCIETY AFTER WORLD WAR IIWORLD WAR II

Science and TechnologyScience and Technology

For first time in history, “pure theoretical” science and For first time in history, “pure theoretical” science and “practical” technology (”applied science”) effectively “practical” technology (”applied science”) effectively joined together on massive scale during WWII.joined together on massive scale during WWII.

British scientists developed radar to detect enemy British scientists developed radar to detect enemy aircraft.aircraft.

Jet aircraft developed by GermanyJet aircraft developed by Germany Electronic computers further developed; had barely Electronic computers further developed; had barely

come into existence before 1939.come into existence before 1939. Manhattan ProjectManhattan Project: Atomic bomb most spectacular result : Atomic bomb most spectacular result

of scientific research during the war; project overseen by of scientific research during the war; project overseen by J. Robert OppenheimerJ. Robert Oppenheimer

Science and TechnologyScience and Technology

““Big ScienceBig Science”” became new model for science became new model for science after WWIIafter WWII

Combined theoretical work with sophisticated Combined theoretical work with sophisticated engineering in a large, often huge organization.engineering in a large, often huge organization.

U.S. emerged as leader in Big Science after U.S. emerged as leader in Big Science after WWIIWWII

Science not demobilized after WWII either in Science not demobilized after WWII either in U.S. or USSRU.S. or USSR

Large portion of all postwar scientific research Large portion of all postwar scientific research went for “defense” (25%!)went for “defense” (25%!)

Space RaceSpace Race

(Part of Cold War competition to achieve (Part of Cold War competition to achieve technological superiority)technological superiority)

1957, USSR launched 1957, USSR launched SputnikSputnik, , an an orbiting satellite using long-range rocketsorbiting satellite using long-range rockets

US fearful Soviets could now launch a US fearful Soviets could now launch a nuclear missile into space and then down nuclear missile into space and then down to U.S.to U.S.

Resulted in development of Resulted in development of ICBMs ICBMs (Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles)(Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles)

Space RaceSpace Race

U.S. countered with creation of NASA and vastly U.S. countered with creation of NASA and vastly increased educational funding for science.increased educational funding for science.

1961, Soviets sent world’s first cosmonaut, 1961, Soviets sent world’s first cosmonaut, Yuri Yuri GagarinGagarin, into orbit., into orbit.

President John F. Kennedy responded by President John F. Kennedy responded by increasing funds for space.increasing funds for space.

1969, 1969, Apollo ProgramApollo Program put first man on the put first man on the moon; 4 more moon landings followed by 1972.moon; 4 more moon landings followed by 1972.

““Brain Drain”Brain Drain”

U.S. attracted many of Europe’s best scientists U.S. attracted many of Europe’s best scientists during 1950s and 1960s—seen as the during 1950s and 1960s—seen as the American American ChallengeChallenge

Some Europeans feared Europe was falling Some Europeans feared Europe was falling behind U.S. in science, technology, and most behind U.S. in science, technology, and most dynamic industrial sectors of the late 20th dynamic industrial sectors of the late 20th century.century.

Yet, revitalized Europe pooling resources on Big Yet, revitalized Europe pooling resources on Big Science projects:Science projects:

ConcordeConcorde supersonic passenger airliner and supersonic passenger airliner and peaceful uses of atomic energy.peaceful uses of atomic energy.

Massive Growth of Scientific Massive Growth of Scientific Community Community

Four times as many scientists in Europe Four times as many scientists in Europe and North America in 1975 as in 1945.and North America in 1975 as in 1945.

Highly specialized modern scientists and Highly specialized modern scientists and technologists worked as members of a technologists worked as members of a team, which completely changed work and team, which completely changed work and lifestyle of modern scientists.lifestyle of modern scientists.

James WatsonJames Watson and and Francis CrickFrancis Crick win win Nobel Prize in 1962 for discovering Nobel Prize in 1962 for discovering structure of structure of DNADNA

Change in Class Structure and Change in Class Structure and Social ReformSocial Reform

Rise of the middle-class largely result of increased Rise of the middle-class largely result of increased access to higher education access to higher education

Structure of lower classes also became more flexible Structure of lower classes also became more flexible and open.and open.

Mass exodus from farms and countryside.Mass exodus from farms and countryside. Resulted in drastic decline in one of Europe’s most Resulted in drastic decline in one of Europe’s most

traditional and least mobile groups.traditional and least mobile groups. Industrial working class ceased to expand while job Industrial working class ceased to expand while job

opportunities for white-collar and service employees opportunities for white-collar and service employees grew rapidly.grew rapidly.

European governments reduced class tensions by European governments reduced class tensions by further expanding social security reforms: health care, further expanding social security reforms: health care, family allowances, maternity grants, public housing family allowances, maternity grants, public housing

Change in Class Structure and Change in Class Structure and Social ReformSocial Reform

““Gadget revolutionGadget revolution”” Like US, Europeans bought washing machines, vacuum Like US, Europeans bought washing machines, vacuum

cleaners, refrigerators, dishwashers, radios, TVs, and cleaners, refrigerators, dishwashers, radios, TVs, and stereos.stereos.

Increased social welfare resulted in more disposable income Increased social welfare resulted in more disposable income and less need to save for old age.and less need to save for old age.

Leisure and recreationLeisure and recreation Soccer matches, horse races, movies, TV, commercialized Soccer matches, horse races, movies, TV, commercialized

hobbieshobbies Increased attendance in cultural events: concerts and Increased attendance in cultural events: concerts and

exhibitions.exhibitions. Travel industry mushroomed most dramaticallyTravel industry mushroomed most dramatically

Before WWII travel for pleasure or relaxation largely Before WWII travel for pleasure or relaxation largely aristocratic.aristocratic.

Paid vacations required by law in most countriesPaid vacations required by law in most countries

The Youth Movement and The Youth Movement and CountercultureCounterculture

Counter-CultureCounter-Culture: rebellion against parents, : rebellion against parents, authority figures and status quoauthority figures and status quo

Baby boom after WWII developed distinctive and Baby boom after WWII developed distinctive and international youth culture.international youth culture.

Many raised in economic prosperity and more Many raised in economic prosperity and more democratic class structure.democratic class structure.

New generation influenced by revival of leftist New generation influenced by revival of leftist thought created a “counter-culture”thought created a “counter-culture”

Some youth rebelled against conformity and Some youth rebelled against conformity and boredom of middle-class suburbs.boredom of middle-class suburbs.

Rock music helped tie counter-culture togetherRock music helped tie counter-culture together

Student Revolts in the Student Revolts in the Late 1960sLate 1960s

Causes of Student Revolts Causes of Student Revolts Opposition to U.S. war in Vietnam triggered revolutionary Opposition to U.S. war in Vietnam triggered revolutionary

ferment among youthsferment among youths Influenced by Marxist current in French universities after 1945 Influenced by Marxist current in French universities after 1945

& new left thinking in US& new left thinking in US Believed older generation & US fighting immoral & Believed older generation & US fighting immoral &

imperialistic war against Vietnam. imperialistic war against Vietnam. Students in western Europe shared US youth's rejection of Students in western Europe shared US youth's rejection of

materialism and belief that postwar society was repressive materialism and belief that postwar society was repressive and flawed.and flawed.

Problems in higher education: classes overcrowded; little Problems in higher education: classes overcrowded; little contact with professors; competition for grades intense; contact with professors; competition for grades intense; demanded even more practical areas of study to qualify for demanded even more practical areas of study to qualify for high-paying jobs after collegehigh-paying jobs after college

Some students warned of dangers of narrowly trained experts Some students warned of dangers of narrowly trained experts ("technocrats") who would serve the establishment to the ("technocrats") who would serve the establishment to the detriment of working class.detriment of working class.

French Student RevoltFrench Student Revolt 19681968 Students took over the university, leading to violent Students took over the university, leading to violent

clashes with police.clashes with police. Most students demanded changes in curriculum and real Most students demanded changes in curriculum and real

voice in running the universityvoice in running the university Appealed to industrial workers for help; spontaneous Appealed to industrial workers for help; spontaneous

general strike spread across Francegeneral strike spread across France To many it seemed the French Fifth Republic might To many it seemed the French Fifth Republic might

collapsecollapse De Gaulle called in troops and called for new elections De Gaulle called in troops and called for new elections

(which he won decisively)(which he won decisively) The mini-Revolution collapsed.The mini-Revolution collapsed. For much of the older generation in western Europe, the For much of the older generation in western Europe, the

student revolution of 1968 signaled the end of illusions student revolution of 1968 signaled the end of illusions and end of an era.and end of an era.

CzechoslovakiaCzechoslovakia Due to Khrushchev’s reforms in USSR, 1960s brought Due to Khrushchev’s reforms in USSR, 1960s brought

modest liberalization and more consumer goods to eastern modest liberalization and more consumer goods to eastern EuropeEurope

1968, reform elements in Czechoslovak Communist party 1968, reform elements in Czechoslovak Communist party gained a majority and voted out long-time Stalinist leader.gained a majority and voted out long-time Stalinist leader.

Alexander DubcekAlexander Dubcek elected leader: ushered new period of elected leader: ushered new period of thaw and rebirth in famous thaw and rebirth in famous ““Prague SpringPrague Spring”” of 1968. of 1968.

Czech reformers building “Czech reformers building “socialism with a human facesocialism with a human face” ” frightened hard-line communists.frightened hard-line communists.

Soviet troops brutally invaded Czechoslovakia in August Soviet troops brutally invaded Czechoslovakia in August 1968.1968.

Czechoslovakia became one of most hard-line communist Czechoslovakia became one of most hard-line communist regimes well into 1980s.regimes well into 1980s.

Brezhnev DoctrineBrezhnev Doctrine: Soviet Union and its allies had right to : Soviet Union and its allies had right to intervene in any socialist country whenever they saw the intervene in any socialist country whenever they saw the need need 

Prague SpringPrague Spring

De-Colonization After De-Colonization After WWII WWII

De-ColonizationDe-Colonization

Postwar era saw total collapse of colonial Postwar era saw total collapse of colonial empires.empires.

Between 1947 and 1962, almost every Between 1947 and 1962, almost every colonial territory gained independence.colonial territory gained independence.

New nations of Asia and Africa deeply New nations of Asia and Africa deeply influenced by Western ideas and influenced by Western ideas and achievements. achievements.

Causes of De-ColonializationCauses of De-Colonialization

Modern nationalism and belief in self-Modern nationalism and belief in self-determination and racial equality, spread from determination and racial equality, spread from intellectuals to the masses in virtually every intellectuals to the masses in virtually every colonial territory after WWI.colonial territory after WWI.

Decline of European prestige: Japanese Decline of European prestige: Japanese victories; destruction of Europe during WWIIvictories; destruction of Europe during WWII

After 1945, European powers more concerned After 1945, European powers more concerned about rebuilding; let colonies goabout rebuilding; let colonies go

IndiaIndia Played a key role in decolonization and the end of empire.Played a key role in decolonization and the end of empire. Indian National CongressIndian National Congress: British had no choice but to develop : British had no choice but to develop

a native political elite that could assist in ruling such huge a native political elite that could assist in ruling such huge country.country.

Exposure of young Indians to Western ideas of nationalism, Exposure of young Indians to Western ideas of nationalism, socialism, and democracy led to demands for independence socialism, and democracy led to demands for independence by the early 20th century.by the early 20th century.

Mohandas K. GandhiMohandas K. Gandhi:: after WWI led independence after WWI led independence movement with principle of movement with principle of passive resistancepassive resistance ( (civil civil disobedience)disobedience)

Jawaharlal Nehru led Congress party in its push for Jawaharlal Nehru led Congress party in its push for independenceindependence

Clement Attlee and others in Labour party wished to focus on Clement Attlee and others in Labour party wished to focus on internal affairs.internal affairs.

Divided India into two nations: India (Hindu) and Pakistan Divided India into two nations: India (Hindu) and Pakistan (Muslim)(Muslim)

GhandiGhandi

ChinaChina

After WWII (defeat of Japanese invaders) After WWII (defeat of Japanese invaders) a civil war broke out between communists a civil war broke out between communists led by led by Mao ZedongMao Zedong and Nationalists led and Nationalists led by by Jiang JieshiJiang Jieshi (Chang kai-shek) (Chang kai-shek)

Mao won the revolution and created a Mao won the revolution and created a communist country: communist country: People's Republic of People's Republic of ChinaChina

VietnamVietnam

After Japanese removed after WWII, French After Japanese removed after WWII, French tried to reassert control of Indochinatried to reassert control of Indochina

Ho Chi Minh Ho Chi Minh led the independence movement led the independence movement in the northin the north

1954, defeated French forces at 1954, defeated French forces at Dien Bien PhuDien Bien Phu 1954,Vietnam was divided into North 1954,Vietnam was divided into North

(communist) and South (pro-Western); civil war (communist) and South (pro-Western); civil war resultedresulted

U.S. defeated in attempt to prevent communist U.S. defeated in attempt to prevent communist takeover of South Vietnam; Vietnam unified in takeover of South Vietnam; Vietnam unified in 19751975

Arab NationalismArab Nationalism Arab nationalists loosely united by opposition to Arab nationalists loosely united by opposition to

colonialism and migration of Jews to Palestinecolonialism and migration of Jews to Palestine Israel and PalestineIsrael and Palestine Balfour Declaration in 1917 indicated Britain favored Balfour Declaration in 1917 indicated Britain favored

creation of Jewish “national home” in Palestine—creation of Jewish “national home” in Palestine—opposed by Saudi Arabia & Transjordanopposed by Saudi Arabia & Transjordan

Great Britain announced its withdrawal from Palestine in Great Britain announced its withdrawal from Palestine in 1948.1948.

United Nations voted for creation of two states, one Arab United Nations voted for creation of two states, one Arab and one Jewishand one Jewish

Palestinians vowed to fight on until state of Israel Palestinians vowed to fight on until state of Israel destroyed or until they established own independent destroyed or until they established own independent Palestinian state; led to several wars and numerous Palestinian state; led to several wars and numerous conflicts in late 20th centuryconflicts in late 20th century

EgyptEgypt

Arab defeat in 1948 by Israel triggered Arab defeat in 1948 by Israel triggered nationalist revolution in Egypt in 1952.nationalist revolution in Egypt in 1952.

1956, Egyptian president 1956, Egyptian president Gamal Abdel NasserGamal Abdel Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal, the last symbol and nationalized the Suez Canal, the last symbol and substance of Western power in the Middle East.substance of Western power in the Middle East.

France, Britain and Israel attacked Egypt, trying France, Britain and Israel attacked Egypt, trying to take back control of Suez Canalto take back control of Suez Canal

U.S. and Soviet Union demanded their U.S. and Soviet Union demanded their withdrawal and the canal remained in Egypt's withdrawal and the canal remained in Egypt's controlcontrol