The Cold War

1945-1991

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1. ORIGINS OF THE COLD WAR 1945-1953  - 1945 conferences and the emergence of the 

superpowers  The origins of the Cold War: 

● Disputes between the US and the USSR centred around two major issues – Eastern Europe (US planned for free elections but Stalin was determined to create a secure zone of friendly communist governments – Stalin prevailed) and Germany (disagreed over the treatment of the defeated Germany – US favoured lenient treatment, USSR favoured harsh settlement) 

● Divisions were acknowledged by British Prime Minister Winston Churchill in a speech in March 1946 when he used the phrase “the iron curtain” 

 1945 conferences:  Name: Yalta Conference Date: 4th to the 11th February 1945 People: US president Franklin D. Roosevelt, British Prime Minister Winston 

Churchill, Soviet Leader Joseph Stalin Discussed: German reparations, Polish government, United Nations, Japan 

Resolved:  - Agreement that the three nations as well as France would control post-war Germany - Soviets demanded that Germany pay heavy reparations to help compensate for WWII losses, the US and Britain were hesitant as such restrictions would hamper economic recovery in Europe – the fact that reparations would be paid was agreed on but the actual figure not decided - The Lublin Committee – provisional Polish Government set up under Soviet auspices and consisting of communists – would be broadened to include others – clear democratic elements - The three superpowers decided to extend their alliance through the creation of the United Nations - US called for the Soviet Union to enter the war against Japan – obliged to attack Japan within three months of defeat of Germany 

  Between: Polish democrats excluded from Lublin Committee, communist 

governments installed in other eastern European countries, new US president Harry Truman (knew little about foreign policy, little appreciation of Soviet needs to guarantee their security in Eastern Europe, tougher, more confrontational), Truman suddenly cut Lend Lease aid to Soviet Union – convinced Stalin that the US were prepared to use economic blackmail 

    

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Name: Potsdam Conference – held in Germany Date: 17th of July to 2nd August 1945 People: US President Harry Truman, Stalin, Winston Churchill (replaced by 

successor Clement Atlee during conference) Discussed: Finalisation of what was discussed at Yalta, four occupation zones, 

reparations, Poland, Nazi war criminals, atomic bomb Resolved:  - Leaders issued the “Potsdam Agreement” – settled upon four 

occupation zones into which Germany, Berlin and Austria would be divided - Reparations discussed and agreed upon – Soviet Union able to reap reparations from their zone of occupation along with 15% of such usable and complete industrial capital equipment from Western zones and 10% of such industrial capital equipment as is unnecessary for the German peace economy - Reshaping of Poland concluded upon – eastern parts of country remaining annexed by the Soviets and the nation expanding its borders west into Germany - Leaders agreed that Nazi war criminals were to be prosecuted under an international war crimes tribunal - Truman told Stalin that the US now possessed the atomic bomb 

  The emergence of the superpowers: 

 Ideological conflict – 

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US – Liberal democracy with a capitalist economic system – communism seen as the antitheses of these ideals and a threat to ‘the American way of life’ 

USSR – communist dictatorship with a centrally planned socialist economy – founded on the principles of Marxism 

- Liberal democracy – citizens have the right to elect a government 

- Citizens granted certain basic civil rights 

- Most elements of economy privately owned – profit is spent or reinvested and the economy expands and more jobs are created 

- Class society – considerable inequality between the wealthy and those at the bottom 

- Not always lived up to its liberal democratic ideals – anyone suspected of being communist persecuted and brutal dictators around the world were supported if they opposed communism 

- Marxism - Communist revolution in 1917 - Government shared profits from the 

economy amongst the whole population 

- Citizens enjoyed few of the freedoms and rights taken for granted in liberal democracies 

- Brutal dictatorship - Dictatorship and the emergence of 

elites (athletes) betrayed the ideals of a classless socialist society 

● Beginning of the twentieth century – significant changes in the realms of culture, economics, politics and military – as a result the entire socio-landscape became starkly different 

● April 1950 the US National Security Council released Paper Number 68 which highlighted the fact that there had been an “end of the European era and the rise to dominance of two continental-size superpowers, the United States and the Soviet Union”. 

 After WWII:  

U.S.A:  - Unique position of power, with its “allies exhausted and its rivals defeated” (Painter, D) - Much of the world’s manufacturing capacity, food surpluses and financial reserves resided in their borders - They “possessed the world’s mightiest military machine” (Spellman, W) - Their navy, air force and army were the most technologically advanced and elite defence force in the world – they also possessed some devastating weaponry such as atomic explosives 

 U.S.S.R: - Heavily affected by WWII 

- Severe amount of damage to “crop land, farm animals, factories, mines, transportation networks and housing stock” (Gorlizki, Y) - They possessed formidable armed forces – world’s most powerful army – struck fear into the hearts of the United States – left the world wondering whether it was possible that these two superpowers would eventually clash - Occupied most of central and eastern Europe 

 Series of clashes:  

- Territorial clashes in Europe because of its industrial wealth and closeness to the Russian border 

- In the Far East because of its closeness to the Russian border and its strategic importance to the USA of the Pacific Ocean 

- In the Middle East because of its shared border with Russia and the dependence of the USA on its oil 

- In the former colonies of the Third World because of their resources and their potential as military bases 

 

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USA  Soviet Union Protected on two sides by ocean  Surrounded by potentially hostile 

countries Land borders with Canada and Mexico  Land borders with Norway, Finland, 

Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, Turkey, Iran, Afghanistan and China 

No war damage done to US mainland  Bombed and occupied by German forces, vast losses included 65000km of 

 “The United States and the Soviet Union built empires after World War II” (Gaddis)  - Emerging differences between the superpowers  

● The fact that the USSR employed an autocratic system of government with a dictatorial ruler and was attempting to use its sphere of influence to implore these values on other venerable nations was enough for the democratic USA to vehemently oppose their system of government and economic ideology 

● Several areas of competition: 1. Territory – each country believed in its right to a sphere of influence 

beyond its own national borders 2. Economy – the USA wanted to lead a global revival of capitalism, 

whereas the Soviet Union wanted to use international resources to repair and build its economy in order to maintain its status as the leader of world communism 

3. Ideology – the basic ideals of the USA (capitalism, democracy and Christianity) were incompatible with the basic ideals of the Soviet Union (communism, one-party dictatorship and atheism) 

 Emerging differences:  

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railway and 50% of pre-war Soviet housing 

Wartime casualties: 295000 military, 6 civilians 

Wartime casualties: 13.6 million military, 7.7 million civilians 

Possession of the atomic bomb from 1945 and naval superiority 

The Red Army, the world’s most powerful ground force, occupying most of central and eastern Europe 

Economic factors  ● Different and competing economic goals ● USA wanted to build up the capitalist economies of 

other countries – strong trading partners – wanted to help war-torn capitalist nations – Marshall Plan – gave aid to Europe 

● USSR wanted to lead the world to communism – wanted to retain conquered territory that was rich in resources e.g. Estonia – to do so imposed unequal trade agreements on those neighbouring states – to protect itself created a buffer zone of communist states along its border 

● Economic aid became a weapon ● Economic relations between US and USSR broke down 

– USSR asked US for a loan but was rejected – made Stalin believe he had to become strong economically 

Deteriorating relations  ● Stalin chose to interpret the Potsdam agreement as approving Soviet dominance in Eastern Europe 

   

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● Only Finland was treated the was the West had agreed, with a freely elected government that regarded friendly relations with the Soviet Union as its first preference 

● Poland – rigged elections brought communists to power 

● Czechoslovakia – communists won a slight majority ● Hungary, Romania and Bulgaria controlled by Red 

Army ● The Communist Information Bureau (Cominform) 

became an agent of Soviet domination of satellite countries – coordinated the activities of other communist parties in other parts of the world 

Distrust  ● Negotiation over any issue was difficult ● Encouraged the Arms Race and the Space Race ● Each side felt that it needed to deal with the other 

from a position of superiority Spying (espionage)  ● USA created a National Security Council in 1947 and 

the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) to coordinate the “gathering of intelligence” 

● Russian secret service – KGB – wider role than CIS in that it conducted surveillance of all the citizens of its own country, not just those suspected of being agents of foreign countries 

Propaganda  ● Both sides controlled the flow of information to their people as well as contributing misinformation 

● The West’s media portrayed communism as an unstoppable river, a murky shadow spreading across the world, a steamroller 

● The Russians limited information about, and access to, the West – foreigners and foreign ideas were made out to be the enemies of Russia – Western culture and society were seen as morally inferior to Soviet life 

Two Camps (bipolar world) 

● World split into “two camps” – each camp developed a bloc of allies – Western Bloc and Eastern Bloc 

● Most international disputes were seen through the prism of the Cold War 

● The Western powers came together in the 1949 North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) – united the USA, Canada and all Western European powers in arrangements for the joint defence of Western Europe 

● The Soviet Union consolidated its Eastern bloc supporters in the Warsaw Pact of 1955 

- The Truman Doctrine and its consequences  The Truman Doctrine:  

Two influential advisers – Clark Clifford and George F. Kennan – decided there was a need for tough policies and actions from the US In early 1947 Britain announced that it could no longer afford to resist the spread of communist influence in Greece and Turkey – Truman announced that the US would provide $400 million in aid to anti-communist forces in these areas – major new policy Truman called for the global containment of communism – “It must be the policy of the United States to support free people who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressure” Also growing fears that tensions in Turkey would result in higher communist influence in the area – US offered aid in an attempt to both politically stabilise the Mediterranean region and solidify their power Evidence of a move towards a policy of containment – away from isolationism – significant marker in the initiation of the Cold War 

 Significance/Consequences:  

1. Outlined the way in which America was to fight the Cold War up until the détente of the 1970’s and became the justification for American intervention to prevent communist victories in other countries e.g. military mission sent to Greece – USA provided massive assistance to the Greek Royalist Army – communists defeated. Policy of containment – stop the spread:  

a. Provision of economic and military aid to anti-communist governments 

b. The establishment of anti-Soviet alliances c. US military intervention 

The need to justify the economic cost of containment led to US presidents over dramatising the Soviet threat – Soviet paranoia Needed to be an unprecedented peacetime military build up – contributed to dangerous arms race US found itself propping up corrupt dictatorships just because they were anti-communist – drove some into communist camp Containment gone wrong - Indochina 

2. Inflamed the Cold War 3. A direct consequence of the speech was the complementary Marshall Plan – 

outlined by US Secretary of State, George Marshall – offered American economic aid to all of Europe, even those that had been in the Soviet sphere of influence - ensured that Western Europe could avoid debts and foster an environment where their economies could rebuild and prosper 

4. Ensured an inauguration of the notion of the “domino theory” – played a crucial role in the dictating foreign policy in the years to come, in particular, the Vietnam War and the Korean War – theory stated that if one country became communist it was only a matter of time before all the nations in the immediate region would succumb to the pressure of communism 

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5. Ensured that there would be a policy of “collective security” and as a result of this collective approach, the band of allies formed NATO 

6. Retaliation of the Soviet Union: - Rejected Marshall Aid – refused to let their Eastern European 

satellites participate in the Marshall Plan – consolidate their own economic control over Eastern Europe – 1949 – formation of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON) – tied trade and economic development in the Eastern European countries to Soviet Union 

- Economic control coupled by attempts to consolidate Soviet military and political domination – COMINFORM – ensured that Soviet control was exercised over all its members 

  - Impact of the early crises: The Berlin blockade and airlift; 

China becoming communist in 1949; the Korean War  

● All of these crises are examples of imperialism ▪ USA encouraged and became involved in conflicts to support its 

economically important military industries ▪ USSP used conflicts to encourage the worldwide spread of 

communism  Berlin blockade and airlift:  

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Outline  → Four zones in Berlin – the three Western powers prepared the way for a capitalist economic system and a democratic style government in their zones, which together made up Western Germany. The Soviets, on the other hand, ensured that communism became established in East Germany 

→ The Western powers relied on free access through the Soviet zone of Germany to reach West Berlin 

→ On 23 June 1948 the Soviet government imposed a blockade on all road and rail access into West Berlin – hoped that the West would abandon West Berlin and allow it to be absorbed in a future communist East Germany – Soviets wanted to ensure highly sought-after capital was inaccessible to the three nations 

→ Americans saw the Berlin Blockade as a test of their commitment to their new containment policy – symbol of democratic resistance to the expansion of communism 

→ While the Americans did not want to abandon West Berlin, they also did not want to risk a military confrontation with the Red Army in Europe, instead chose to airlift supplies into West Berlin – this put pressure on Stalin who was also reluctant to shoot down western planes 

→ The Berlin Airlift continued until 12 May 1949 when the Soviets lifted their blockade 

 China becoming communist in 1949:  

 The Korean War: 

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Impact  → Political masterstroke for the US, with its efforts “winning over German public opinion and helping pave the was for the creation of the Federal Republic of Germany in September 1949” (Painter, D) 

→ Germany was now segregated into a capitalist west and a communist east – Soviet Union had to establish their own German state in their occupation zone leaving Germany the melting pot of Cold War affairs 

→ Ensured that the US and the Soviets came to the realisation that they were fighting for world domination and thus a race to produce both technologically superior weapons as well as a high amount of them begun and would continue until the completion of the Cold War 

→ As far as the US were concerned, it was a successful example of containment and showed America’s resolve to resist the further expansion of communism in Europe 

→ In the aftermath both sides consolidated their power – the Western Powers established a democratic West Germany and the NATO and the USSR established a communist East Germany 

→ Both sides came to accept the stalemate in Europe 

Outline  → Following three years of civil war, the Communists took Beijing in 1949 and created the People’s Republic of China 

→ It was a separate communist state from the Soviet Union, but it received economic aid from the Soviets and was seen simplistically by the USA as an example of the spread of communism – reinforced when Chinese leader, Mao Zedong, acknowledged Russia’s leadership of the communist revolution – Mao, however, intended to follow his own independent path 

→ Communist China continued to trade with the West → Relations did not significantly break down until the Korean War 

Impact  → The US had a special interest in China and had provided military and financial aid to them - the “loss” of China to communism was hence a severe blow – hardliners wanted to know where US policy had gone wrong and how China could have been lost to the Soviet bloc – the victory of the communists in China was not seen as a national revolution but as a sign of the successful march of communism across the world 

→ It caused the Truman administration to embark on an arm build up to counter a situation where communism seemed to have made rapid advances 

→ Set the scene for intervention in Vietnam (coupled with Domino Theory) 

→ Cold War had spread to Asia (coupled with Korean War) 

 

  

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Outline  → American troops had “liberated” the South of Korea, so the country was formally divided, with a communist sphere of interest in the North and an independent constitutional republic in the South – two separate countries set up 

→ Most of the wealth was in the South so the North wanted to reunite – this opportunity came when the Marshall Plan focused on Europe 

→ North Korean troops invaded South Korea in June 1950 → The USA saw the invasion of South Korea as a Soviet plot to extend 

their sphere of influence into Asia → By October 1950 the US led UN force had pushed the North 

Koreans back into North Korea, but General MacArthur and Truman did not want to end the war – they saw the chance to unite the two Koreas and extend their influence 

→ China shared a border with Korea and saw the American plan as a direct threat to their new regime – they sent in Soviet troops and the UN forces were pushed back far into South Korea 

→ In 1951 Truman wanted a ceasefire but MacArthur wanted to use nuclear weapons on China – Truman sacked MacArthur 

→ Peace talks began in June 1951 and in 1953 an armistice was signed 

Impact  → The US had contained the spread of communism but it had not achieved “rollback” – a hostile stalemate was the result 

→ This tense border between the two sides remains as an anachronistic remnant of the Cold War 

→ Political leaders, e.g. Truman, had recoiled from the prospect of world war involving nuclear weapons (nevertheless, the nuclear arms race continued) 

→ The US redoubled efforts to consolidate a worldwide anti-communist alliance – peace treaty signed with Japan and restoration given; US signed ANZUS treaty with Australia and New Zealand; SEATO (South East Asian Treaty Organisation) formed between the US, Britain, France, Australia, New Zealand, Pakistan, Thailand and the Philippines 

→ The Korean War confirmed US commitment to the policy of containment in Asia 

2. DEVELOPMENT OF THE COLD WAR TO 1968  - Policy of containment, domino theory and the 

emergence of peaceful co-existence   

 

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Peaceful co-existence:  

- In 1953 Joseph Stalin died and was replaced as Soviet leader by Nikita Khrushchev – softening in the Soviet attitude 

- In 1960 Khrushchev spoke of the possibilities of ‘peaceful co-existence’ – the challenge, he argued, was to avoid confrontation between the “groups of countries in which the two systems reign supreme” – “You do not like communism. We do not like capitalism. There is only one way out – peaceful coexistence” 

- “thawing out” period - Asserted it was never Soviet intention to conquer the world or impose its system by 

force but believed he was free to compete for influence in neutral countries - this involved: 1. Vigorous pursuit of the arms race 2. Continuation of the propaganda war 3. Prolonged campaign to gain influence in areas outside the two main power blocs (Third World) 

- Peaceful coexistence did not amount to allowing any greater freedom to the nations of Eastern Europe which were under Soviet domination 

- Times when confrontation flared e.g. Cuban Missile Crisis - Signs of cooperation when confrontation was avoided e.g. when USSR did not 

get involved in Vietnam War (even though they backed North Vietnam)  Why was ‘peaceful coexistence’ good for either side? 

- Khrushchev was aware that the Soviet Union needed time to rebuild to effectively challenge the US, and the looming threat of Nuclear holocaust and the doctrine of ‘mutually assured destruction’ made it clear that a compromise had to be made 

- The fact that the arms race was picking up made Khrushchev realise if the Soviets wanted to have any chance of competing with the US and hold face in their own country, they had to have period where they could successfully “compete” without threat of war 

- The USA liked the move away from nuclear war and realised they could now change their foreign policy to a less openly hostile version and concentrate on pressing domestic issues 

 Peaceful coexistence led to a number of summit meetings: 

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Name  Date  Discussed/Resolved Geneva Summit 

1955  ● Between Khrushchev and Eisenhower ● Significant points of disagreement; the USA rejected 

Khrushchev’s proposal to disband both NATO and the Warsaw pact, while the Soviet Union dismissed Eisenhower’s suggestion that both sides allow aerial reconnaissance of military installations.  

● However, both sides agreed to the reunification of Austria. 

Paris Summit  1960  ● Between Khrushchev and Eisenhower ● Discussed Berlin, East Germany and peaceful 

coexistence 

  - Superpower rivalry: the arms race and the space race  Superpower rivalry in the Third World: 

- Third World: poor or developing countries that were outside the two main power blocs 

- Mid 1950s - As each superpower tried to increase its influence with the Third World 

governments, they offered economic aid, trade assistance and weapons - Aspects of the Cold War in the third world included: 

▪ The US’s support for anti-communist regimes in South Korea and South Vietnam, both leading to military intervention 

▪ The USSR’s economic assistance to Egypt for the building of the Aswan Dam in the mid 1950s – subsequently, with the USSR backing the Arab states and the US backing Egypt, superpower rivalry became a factor in the Middle East conflict 

 - There were a number of reasons for superpower rivalry in the third world: 

▪ Ideological component – either supporting democracy or seeking Marxist revolutionaries 

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● Meeting disrupted by U2 crisis – U2 crisis contributed to Khrushchev’s downfall – he wanted to trust the USA, but Soviet hawks criticised his friendship towards Eisenhower 

Vienna Summit  1961  ● Between Kennedy and Khrushchev ● Little agreement ● Kennedy recovering from Bay of Pigs – Khrushchev 

fearful that US aid to poor countries would stop the spread of communism 

● Khrushchev demanded a favourable solution to the Berlin situation 

Nuclear Test Ban Treaty 

1963  ● Kennedy and Khrushchev ● Banned nuclear testing in space, in the atmosphere 

and underwater ● Led to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty – limited 

nuclear weapons to those countries that already had them 

● Ironically, as the two superpowers built up their stores of nuclear weapons, peaceful coexistence became more possible – as long as they knew they could impose damage on the other the relationship could remain stable 

Moscow Summit 

1972  ● Between Nixon and Brezhnev ● Strategic Arms Limitation Talks ● Both sides signed the SALT I Agreement ● Both sides also agreed to avoid military confrontation 

and work towards peaceful coexistence 

▪ In the Middle East, oil wealth was at stake ▪ US goal of containment ▪ Soviet Leaders were building an empire of influence simply to 

match the US – reckless and wasteful adventures  

America in Vietnam: - Vietnam split into a communist ruled North and a non-communist South - Civil War developed after attempts to reunite country under a single government - The US provided aid and military advisers to the government of South Vietnam - 1965 – US committed hundreds of thousands of US combat troops to the war in 

Vietnam - Nixon became aware that America’s military might was being frustrated by the 

North Vietnamese – humiliating back down – US withdrew - Major impact on Americans’ view of the Cold War: 

o The country’s first defeat contributed to a national crisis of confidence o “collapse of the Cold War consensus” (Fitzgerald, J) – simple dogmas like 

the Domino Theory collapsed (the fall of South Vietnam did not lead to the spread of communism in south east Asia – this is because the North Vietnamese were motivated by nationalism and were not attempting to spread communism – the US had confused Asian nationalism with communist imperialism) 

  

The Arms Race:  

Hawks on both sides encouraged policies that led to an arms race between the super powers. A fall behind on either side would mean the lagging superpower would lose a substantial amount of public support both domestically and internationally, and conversely, if one side was to push ahead the psychological advantage would be significant. 

 

    

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Missile Development  First gained by…  Then gained by… Intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) fired from underground silos 

USSR, 1957  USA, 1958 

Submarine-launched ballistic missiles 

USA, 1960  USSR, 1968 

Multiple independently targeted re-entry vehicles (offensive missiles designed to combat improvements in missile defences) 

USA, 1970  USSR, 1975 

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PERIOD  EXPLANATION Directly after WWII  - The US maintained its atomic weapon monopoly – little 

worries about entering war with Soviet Union August 1949  - Arms race came into being when the Soviets acquired 

the necessary nuclear technology to test their first explosive 

1952  - USA developed the Hydrogen Bomb After Korean War  - The USA established military bases in countries around the 

world e.g. Australia, Morocco, New Zealand - USA increased its supply of arms for itself and its Western 

allies Both sides made conscious efforts to increase military capabilities 

- The US was “expanding its armed forces by over one million troops and dramatically increasing production of aircraft, ships, combat vehicles and other conventional weapons” (Painter, D) – The US wished to continue the arms race through countering the Soviet conventional superiority in central Europe and as a result consolidating US freedom of action across the globe. 

- The Soviet Union countered this, with a massive recruitment program, adding three million troops to the Red Army. 

Changes in the leader of the arms race 

- In response to the Warsaw Pact the US developed a popular form of long-range combat - intercontinental bombers – able to drop explosives on the opposing nation – the comparative quantity of these bombers was a massive victory for the US (22:1) 

- Lead in the arms race changed in 1957 when the Soviets successfully tested an intercontinental ballistic missile in addition to its already potent intermediate-range strike force – gave them the facility of striking numerous targets in both the US and Western Europe 

The threat is heightened – Soviets take the upper hand 

- Analysts gauged the warning time of the missiles to be minutes rather than hours – more chance of a surprise attack – a surprise attack on US bomber could completely destroy their potential to wage a nuclear war – Soviets posed a serious threat to the security of the US – super power rivalry as its highpoint 

US catches up  - Under the leadership of Eisenhower, the US deployed missile and bomber facilities in Western Europe which were a close enough proximity to the Soviet Union to ensure there was a capability to strike 

- The USA’s first inter-continental ballistic missile went on alert in October 1959 – major step towards the theory of “mutually assured destruction” and enough to give the US the upper hand 

- US surged ahead in the contest with JFK convincing Congress to increase military funding by 15% 

 The arms race culminated in worldwide anxiety about the possibility of nuclear 

war. Anti-nuclear protest movements gathered momentum in the West, particularly in the United Kingdom. 

 The Space Race:  

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1962  - Arms race takes a particularly sinister turn when the USA discovers Soviet missile bases in Cuba 

Soviet Union develops naval access 

- 1964 – naval access to the Mediterranean - 1968 – naval access to the Indian ocean - Naval facilities in Egypt, Syria, South Yemen and the 

Seychelles The US surges ahead while the Soviets bluff 

- The Soviets under Khrushchev favoured cutting back military spending to focus on internal economic problems – claimed that the USSR was “churning out ICBM’s like sausages” 

- This only increased US spending and forced the Soviets further behind in the arms race 

Between 1980 and 1986 

- The US defence budget more than doubled 

1983 – arms race moves into space 

- President Reagan announced the Strategic Defence Initiative, which was referred to as “Star Wars”. The idea was to develop a defensive canopy based on satellites that could destroy Soviet missiles in flight 

PERIOD  EXPLANATION Early 1950s  - Unbelievable inroads were being made into long range 

missiles - Soviet Union decided to go “where no man has been 

before” and attempted to send a satellite into space - Americans spent billions on research and development - 1950 – the American Congress set up the National 

Science Foundation October 1957  - After an elaborate research and testing program, Sputnik 

1, an earth orbiting satellite, was successfully launched into space by the R7 rocket 

- Caught the US by surprise - Signalled the official start to what has been termed the 

“space race” - US funding for National Science Foundation significantly 

increased Start of the space race 

- Important for both superpowers - Space technology opened up unbelievable new tactical 

military options and significantly boosted the morale of the specific nation – such an exciting and unfounded project proved of incalculable interest to the general public 

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- “In the eyes of the world, first in space means first, period; second in space is second in everything” (Lyndon B. Johnson) 

American U2 spy plane 

- Considered a piece of technology within the space race as it reached heights that could not be reached by anti-aircraft defences or radar systems 

- Used in flyovers to take photographs to map the Soviet Union and check any military developments within the nation 

In reply to Sputnik 1 – February 1958 

- Took only four months to reply - Launched Explorer 1 into the Earth’s orbit - Heightened superpower rivalry that was occurring over 

the space race and intensified its activity 18th December 1958  - Looked as though the US would surpass the Soviet Union 

in the space race - Launched the first communication satellite in the form of 

Project SCORE Sending the first man into space 

- April 1961 – the Russians put the first man in space – cosmonaut Yori Gagarin 

- Brutal for the US - General public were only concerned about such actions 

in relation to who completed them first as the general reception of American Alan Shepard, whom was sent into space only 23 days after Gagarin, was significantly reduced 

The next step…  - Small margin between the two superpowers in the space race 

- Something truly groundbreaking had to happen to end the contest 

- Both sides had little luck with their lunar missions - It was viewed that the “finish line was man on the moon” 

(Scott, D) 1968  - Two unmanned experimental Soviet rockets, Zond 5 and 

6, flew around the moon taking scientific photographs – signalled the USSR’s lunar intentions 

- In retaliation, two American astronauts orbited the moon in the rocket Apollo 8 and successfully returned back to earth - psychological boost for US 

1969  - Telling blow - Buzz Aldrin, Neil Armstrong and Michael Collins landed on 

the moon’s surface in Apollo 7 - Event that all but claimed a victory over the Soviet Union 

in one of the tensest superpower rivalries in the Cold War After 1969  - Cooperation increased – reducing wasteful competition 

- 1975 – symbolised by the docking of a Soviet machine with an American machine 

- Nature and impact of crises: Berlin Wall 1961, Cuba 1962, Czechoslovakia 1968 

 Berlin Wall:  

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Nature  ☺ Following the segregation of Germany into two separate nations, a great antagonism between the prosperous West whom had undergone an “economic miracle” (Panter, D) and the communist East manifested itself within Germany 

☺ The Soviet Union believed the West had delayed the construction of a formal peace settlement between East and West Germany in hope that the prosperity that West Germany was enjoying would pull East Germany and other Eastern European states out of the socialist bloc 

☺ Troubles for Soviets: o Couldn’t establish feasible state within East Germany o East German government resisted pressures for reform o Citizens immigrated to West Germany using Berlin as a 

thoroughfare o West Berlin was a propaganda symbol for the West, located 

deep within the communist bloc ☺ East Germany a vital strategic position for USSR: 

o US had littered the West with nuclear missile facilities o Also, sentimental (compensation for WWII where millions of 

their men perished) ☺ Khrushchev issued a defensively motivated ultimatum: 

o German peace treaty that would recognise the existence of two Germanies 

o Called for the end of four-power control of Berlin o Western sectors of the Berlin become demilitarizes and 

self-governing free city o If US did not agree Khrushchev would grant the German 

Democratic Republic full control of access to capitalist West Berlin 

☺ Soviet Union withdrew their ultimatum but tensions still existed – skilled workers leaving East Germany – ensuing deficit of quality labour 

☺ Crisis reignited by U2 spy plane incident – Soviets realised the amount of classified information that the US were receiving from their missions 

o Eisenhower took responsibility for the flights o Khrushchev stormed out of Paris Summit and a month later 

renewed his ultimatum ☺ Kennedy said (25th July 1961) that the US would do all they could 

possibly do to ensure the West was not driven out of Berlin and that the Soviets did not dictate terms in Germany 

☺ Less than a month later the East German government sealed off all access roads between East and West Berlin and began construction 

 The Cuban Missile Crisis:  

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of the Berlin wall that surrounded West Berlin to ensure that citizens of East Germany would stay in their communist territory 

☺ End of the Cold War was heralded by the people of Berlin breaking down the wall in 1989 

Impact  ☺ Symbolic of the Cold War and the dictatorial and oppressive means that the communist party needed to employ to ensure loyalty of its inhabitants – telling symbol of the closed society that was at the heart of the Soviet’s communist system 

☺ Concrete example of the differences between the communist world and the non-communist world 

☺ An “ideological defeat of colossal proportions for the Soviet Union and world communism” (Painter, D) 

☺ Erection of the wall ended the period of instability that was plaguing East Germany – long phase of economic, social and political stability graced Europe – ensured the Cold War would not be played out on foreign shores – crucial moment in Cold War’s development 

Nature  ☺ Since 1933 Cuba was governed by a Pro-American dictator, Batista, who was committed to preserving a repressive, authoritarian regime which favoured the privileged class – anti-democratic policies – America supported to avoid the rise of anti-Batista communists 

☺ The US bought the majority of all Cuban exports ☺ In 1959 Batista’s government was overthrown in a communist 

revolution by Fidel Castro ☺ Supports of Batista, industrialists, bureaucrats and the privileged 

class, fled to the US – they were welcomed ☺ Right wing Cuban refugees planned a counter-revolution to 

overthrow Castro – JFK endorsed a plan – CIA trained Cuban exiles for invasion and counter-revolution – April 1961 the invasion took place – the landing did not incite a popular uprising – landing brigade captured by Cuban army loyal to Castro – humiliation to the US – propaganda for the Soviets – Bay of Pigs incident 

☺ Soviets stepped in to support the Castro government – Cubans allowed Soviets to construct military/missile bases 

☺ Americans concerned when spy plane observed construction of missile bases – clear challenge to the Monroe Doctrine (tenant of American foreign policy that said North and South America was an “American sphere”) – JFK warned Khrushchev against installing the missiles 

☺ October 1962 – US naval cordon set up around Cuba – ships going into Cuba searches 

☺ Soviet ships escorted by a Soviet submarine sailed towards Cuba with no intention to stop – realisation a “hot” war, likely to involve nuclear weapons, seemed like a possibility 

☺ Frantic diplomatic exchanges between the two governments 

 Czechoslovakia:  

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☺ JFK agreed not to invade Cuba and Khrushchev accepted and turned the ships around and send a telegram to tell JFK that the missile bases would be dismantled 

Impact  ☺ Placed communism on American doorstep ☺ Reduced the bargaining power of the USSR in negotiations with the 

West ☺ Brought to the US reconsiderations about theories about nuclear war 

– Robert McNamara concluded that nuclear weapons could not be used in war – MAD! 

☺ Both Kennedy and Khrushchev resisted the advice of hardliners who urged a military solution – a diplomatic solution was found – in the aftermath it was clear that both sides were keen to improve communication so as to avoid future misunderstanding 

o In 1963 a “hot line” direct communication link was established between Moscow and Washington 

o In 1963 also, a Partial Test Ban Treaty (ending the atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons) was agreed to 

☺ Kennedy handled the situation well and his reputation and authority was enhanced, whilst Khrushchev’s authority was undermined – the Soviet military resented the humiliating back down – others in the USSR saw the move to place missiles in Cuba as unnecessary 

☺ Highlighted the fact that the USSR was no match of the US in nuclear weapons – prompted a determined effort on the Soviet part to catch up – thus, although the US-Soviet relations were much better by the end of the sixties, the arms build-up had made the world a potentially more dangerous place 

Nature  ☺ Stalin-appointed dictator Antonin Novotny was disliked by his party and the country’s literati for his anti-liberalism and sincere Stalinism 

☺ January 1968 – liberal reformer Alexander Dubcek chosen as new leader of the communist party. Wanted to improve the economy: 

o Less central planning o Making more contacts with the West o Modernising the communist party o Introduced reforms: freedom of the press; a socialist market 

economy; more democracy o “socialism with a human face” – resurgence in artistic 

expression which had long been repressed o Censoring eased 

● ALL EQUALED A SENSE OF EUPHORIA AMONG THE POPULOUS THAT BECAME KNOWN AS “PRAGUE SPRING” 

☺ Dubcek did not want to withdraw from the Warsaw Pact ☺ The Brezhnev Doctrine decreed the Soviet Union’s right to intervene 

in the affairs of another country when the interests of socialism were being threatened 

 * Eurocommunism: a new trend in the 70s and 80s within various Western 

European communist parties to develop a theory and practice of social transformation that was more relevant in a Western European democracy and less aligned to the party line of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union 

 Period 1953 to 1969 – Halliday called a time of “oscillatory antagonism”  

 

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o 20 August 1968, 600 000 troops from Warsaw Pact countries invaded Czechoslovakia to restore Soviet control 

o Most Czechs did not resist – although there were rocks thrown at tanks, street signs removed to confuse tanks, etc. 

o Dubcek and his colleagues’- arrested and replaced with pliable dictator, Gustav Husak 

o A new, pro-Moscow government is introduced Impact  ☺ The Brezhnev Doctrine was born – used twice again- to send troops 

to Afghanistan and to threaten extreme reforms in Poland Solidarity Movement 

☺ This Soviet military imposition on a supposedly sovereign country provoked international outrage – although, Western countries offered only vocal criticism 

☺ Brutal reminder of the Soviet Union’s paranoia about protecting its frontiers through the maintenance of friendly buffer states – in the USSR there were a number of open acts of dissent e.g. activists protested against the use of military force in Czechoslovakia in the Red Square on 25th August 1968 

☺ The events of Prague Spring deepened the disillusion of many Western leftists with Marxist-Leninist views 

☺ Contributed to the growth of Eurocommunist* ideas in Western communist parties – leading to the eventual dissolution or break-up of many of these groups 

3. DETENTE  ▪ During the late 1960s and early 1970s ▪ Relaxing of tension between the two Cold War enemies ▪ Development from the period of peaceful coexistence – it went further – 

with the hope that the superpowers could not only learn to live with each other, but also actively cooperate and even resolve their major differences 

▪ There was talk of the Cold War being over – unfortunately, it did not survive the decade 

▪ Been suggested that there were six characteristics of détente: 1. Break in the arms race – limits placed on the increase in weapons 2. Greater tolerance between the two of each other’s political system 3. Agreements on the Third World conflicts made 4. The leaders met more frequently at summits 5. The US wanted to avoid another Vietnam – hoped that better 

understanding with the Soviet Union would prevent US military action 6. The Soviet Union began to relax some of its political controls over the 

Eastern bloc  - Economic and political reasons for detente  Economic reasons:  

1. The USSR had achieved rough parity with the US in nuclear weapons – both sides now had an interest in seeking agreement on arms control rather than simply continuing the wasteful arms race – military spending was draining both economies 

2. Soviet Union wanted to limit nuclear weapons because it had superior conventional forces in Europe – reducing nuclear arms would give the Soviets a strategic advantage over there over NATO. Similarly, the US wanted to limit nuclear weaponry because it had a strategic advantage in its own store of nuclear weapons and did not want other countries to catch up. 

3. Stalemate in Europe had been accepted for some time – both the superpowers had an interest in easing tension and cooperating in trade and other areas 

4. The Soviets could see many advantages in cooperation with the US – attraction of US trade and technology – time of tension between China and USSR (fear that China was developing nuclear capability) – obvious sense in mending fences with the US  

Political reasons:  

1. Détente was a natural progression from peaceful coexistence 2. The US was desperate to extract itself from the Vietnam War – Nixon’s “peace 

with honour” – such a withdrawal could only happen if the North-Vietnamese cooperated in peace talks – Americans thought the Soviets might be able to 

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help influence this outcome (in return the US could offer trade deals or new technology) – US hoped to base détente on such a cooperation 

3. American experience in Vietnam had led to the painful lesson that a focus on ideology would not produce sensible policy 

4. It was realised that “Soviet Communist Expansionism” of US Cold War propaganda did not reflect reality – e.g. a split between China and the USSR was evident – the Soviets did not dominate the communist world – such realisations took the heat out of the ideological dispute and encouraged a more pragmatic approach on both sides 

5. Brezhnev believed that peace would create the most favourable conditions for promoting communism   - Geopolitical developments: Vietnam, Sino-Soviet split, 

the Middle East  Vietnam:  

- Like the Soviets, the Americans came to accept existing spheres of influence. However, they were much less accepting of situations where communism seemed to be breaking new ground 

 → Vietnam was the site of a struggle between the communist North, led by Ho Chi 

Minh, and the dictatorship of Ngo Dinh Diem in the South → In order to contain communism, the USA intervened and supported the 

dictatorship of Ngo Dinh Diem as a puppet government in South Vietnam → In 1964 the USA justified military intervention in Vietnam by alleging that American 

ships had been attacked by North Vietnam in what became known as the Gulf of Tonkin incident 

→ Communist guerrillas were fought with heavy bombing, the spraying of chemicals to poison ground cover and crops, the use of napalm to burn villages and villagers and the punishment and massacre of civilians 

→ The US believed that if they applied force and were determined they would win the Vietnam War – they were wrong – it deeply divided the US public 

→ The stalemate that had deteriorated from the Vietnam War was costing the US millions upon millions of dollars to continue fighting – drained the economy and affected social conditions 

→ The Vietnam War caused a change in US policy – the Nixon Doctrine altered the Truman Doctrine (ND endorsed peaceful coexistence as the basis of superpower relations and abandoned the need to defend freedom around the world) 

→ US remained firm on its ideological opposition to communism and maintained that its presence in Vietnam was warranted 

→ Richard Nixon finally conceded that the war was becoming too expensive and the USA withdrew most of its troops in January 1973 when political unrest at home and the cost of the war became too much 

→ The US had expected a “quick fix”  Sino-Soviet split: 

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 → 1953: Soviets signed trade agreement with China to supply machinery in 

exchange for Chinese raw materials → The Korean War revealed that the Chinese and the Soviets could not always trust 

each other → Khrushchev’s attack on the “cult of personality” and his Peaceful Coexistence 

Policy were denounced by Mao and the Chinese Communist Party – Khrushchev denounced Mao’s sweeping of peasants into communes 

→ 1959: Soviets withdrew their promise to help China develop nuclear weapons → 1960: the USSR withdrew economic aid to China → The Soviet Union’s ties with Communist China were broken due to both interest 

and ideological conflict – deteriorated after the fall of Khrushchev → In March 1969 hostility between the two countries led to fighting over who owned 

an insignificant island in the Ussuri River → Chinese leader Mao Zedong thought it was important to make a stand because 

he feared the implications of the Brezhnev Doctrine with its justification for invading countries on the Soviet border 

→ Mao retreated from full-scale war because he knew the Chinese could not defeat the Soviets – he also saw that the US was tied up in Vietnam and believed China could exploit the resulting tension between the USSR and the West by seeking reconciliation with the USA – the USA saw strategic value in gaining Chinese friendship – in February 1972 a joint communiqué declared the intention of the two countries to normalise their relations 

 Impacts: 

1. The Sino-Soviet split led to an improvement in relations between the USA and China 

2. The Soviet Union and China began engaging in polemics** against each other, opening up a period of unhidden hostility between the two former allies that lasted for the remainder of the Cold War era 

3. The bipolar world of the early Cold War had now become multi-polar 4. Split in the communist camp and a reduction in the power and influence of 

the Soviets  **Polemics: the practice of disputing or opposing religious, philosophical or 

political matters  The Middle East:  

→ The superpowers clashed in the Middle East for both economic and strategic reasons – each wanted to exploit the resources of this region, and each also saw its potential for providing sites for military, air and naval bases 

→ USA tried to combat communism by sending aid to poor and undeveloped nations – aid ended up in the hands of the rich rulers and the poor remained impoverished – easily attracted to communism 

→ Soviet Union used financial aid to support sympathetic regimes – offered trade agreements and military cooperation in hopes of friendship and cooperation in an attempt to secure loyalty 

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→ Middle East of strategic importance to both sides: o West: oil supplies o Soviet Union: shared borders with Turkey, Iran and Afghanistan – gave 

the Middle East strategic importance; wanted naval facilities in the Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean 

 

  

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PERIOD  DESCRIPTION 1948  ● The Soviet Union supplied arms to the new state of Israel to 

help it win the first Arab-Israeli war ● Political pressure from American Jews then forced the USA 

back to Israel, so the Soviets tried to befriend the Muslim countries e.g. Egypt 

Suez Crisis of 1956 

● Sale of Soviet arms to Egypt prompted the USA to withdraw its economic aid from Egypt – popular nationalist leader, Colonel Abdul Gamal Nasser, reacted by nationalising the Suez Canal, which was owned by Britain and France – therefore Britain and France, backed by Israel, invaded Egypt.  

● The USA and the Soviet Union used the UN to condemn the invasion and force the withdrawal of troops.  

● Policy of US aid to the Middle East began. ● “Decolonisation in Africa was deeply influenced by the 

international environment dominated by Soviet-American rivalry” (Painter, D) 

1967 – Arab-Israeli war 

● USA backed Israel and the Soviet Union backed the Arabs ● Neither superpower wanted to escalate the conflict 

1973 – Yom Kippur War 

● Arab nations placed an oil embargo on the USA ● Reminded the US of how dependant they were on Middle 

Eastern oil 1978  ● USA played a major role in trying to create peace in the 

Middle East, holding the Camp David talks – led to a singing of a peace treaty between Israel and Egypt in 1978 

1979  ● USA lost a long-standing ally when the Shah of Iran was overthrown by an anti-American fundamentalist Islamic revolution 

1980  ● Iraq attacked Iran ● US navy escorted oil tankers to protect them from attack and 

to keep shipping lanes open in the Persian Gulf ● USA more hostile towards Iran than to Iraq at this time 

because of Iranian treatment of Americans during its revolution 

1985  ● Iran benefited from secret US arms shipments in order to raise money for Reagan’s war against the Contras in Nicaragua 

- Features and consequences of detente  

Features: 1. US President Nixon’s dramatic visits to Beijing (where he negotiated ‘normal 

relations’ with China – recognition of Red China and Chinese admission into the UN) and Moscow in 1972 – enormously important in demonstrating America’s new-found willingness to ignore ideological differences and establish good relations with the communist powers 

2. Regular meetings between US and Soviet leader followed the initial Moscow summit in 1972 (at Moscow Summit, Soviets said “Vietnam was not an obstacle to détente”): 

i. Brezhnev visited Washington in 1973 ii. Brezhnev met Nixon in Moscow and Gerald Ford in Vladivostok in 

1974 iii. Carter and Brezhnev met in Vienna in 1979 to sign SALT II 

(The frequency of summits was a sign of improved relations) 3. The signing of the SALT I (1972) * and SALT II (1979) ** arms control agreements 4. In 1972 the Basic Treaty established normal diplomatic relations between East 

and West Germany 5. 1972 – Sea Bed Treaty – banned nuclear weapons from the sea floor outside the 

territorial waters of each country 6. In 1973 there was a ceasefire in Vietnam (US believed it was thanks to pressure 

from Moscow) 7. In 1975 at Helsinki leaders from 35 nations agreed to accept existing European 

borders, seek greater economic cooperation and respect human rights – Helsinki Agreement (Brezhnev confused about final point and the Soviet approach to human rights re-ignited tension between the USSR and the US) 

8. Trade between the US and the Soviet Union increased 9. A number of cultural and educational exchanged took place e.g. 1975 – US 

and Soviet spacecraft linked up whilst in orbit 10. High point – “triangular diplomacy” – conducted by Nixon and Kissinger from 

’71 to ’74 – China admitted to the UN, ending 22 years of isolation – Beijing Summit in 1972 

 There were some tense moments…: 

→ Before the ceasefire in 1973, the US resorted to massive bombing campaigns in an effort to bring the North Vietnamese to the negotiating table – the North was backed by the USSR 

→ In October 1973 the US supplied the Israelis and the USSR supplied the Arabs in the Yom Kippur War – Israelis gained the upper hand – USSR threatened to intervene – US put it forces on alert – both supported a ceasefire 

▪ It was a feature of the early stages of détente that such crises could occur and not disrupt the improved relations 

  

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SALT = Strategic Arms Limitation Talks  *SALT I agreement:  

● Limits were placed on the number of offensive missiles each nation could have 

● Ended the race to create a defensive anti-ballistic missile (ABM) system 

● Missile stockpile levels of both sides were frozen at current levels  **SALT II agreement: 

● Put a limit on the number of missile launchers and M.I.R.V’s each side could possess 

 Each side tried to see each event, conflict or crisis as a separate problem, with 

its own causes and its own solutions – this became the basis of the concept that Harry Kissinger (Richard Nixon’ secretary of state) referred to as “linkage” 

  Consequences:  ADVANTAGES OF DÉTENTE: For the USSR: 

1. Recognised as a military equal of the West 2. Diminished concerns over rivalry with China 3. Access to US trade, technology and investment 

 For the USA: 

1. Soviets might influence North Vietnam to accept peace in Indochina 2. USSR provided a new market and area for investment 3. “Linkage” – agreements could be made – linked to favourable outcomes for US 

in other areas 4. Soviets might cease their competition in the Third World and assist in reducing 

global commitments   Opinions on détente remain divided: 

1. Right-wing anti-communist opinion: detente was a mistake that enabled the Soviet Union to survive for a longer period of time 

2. Left liberal opinion: any reduction of nuclear Armageddon is a positive outcome and the US also needed détente as a respite from the taxing arms race 

3. Realist opinion: agrees that détente-like agreements could only ever be short term because such a calm between sovereign nation states is a deviation from the norm 

 → As détente was never meant to end the war, it was successful, to an extent. It 

had a huge impact – it eased tensions in parts of the world, BUT promoted the USSR to start expansion in others 

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→ It achieved success in arms limitation and European stabilisation, BUT the Soviet expansion into the Third World brought détente to an end… 

→ Temporary solution to a long-term problem?  “Détente collapsed in 1980 but it provided essential lubrication and reduced the friction in the transition from a bipolar to a triangular Cold War” (Bradley)  Signs that détente was fading: 

o Neither side entirely trusted each other or at all condoned or tolerated and form of the other’s ideology – the signing of the treaties was a sign of enthusiasm but their relationship remained “essentially competitive” (Spellman) 

o Nixon was forced to resign – the Soviet Union saw Nixon’s successors, Gerald Ford and Jimmy Carter, as weak and unreliable – Brezhnev was particularly annoyed by Carter’s attacks on the Soviet Union over “human rights” – Brezhnev saw this as a direct interference in Soviet domestic policy and believed it was none of Carter’s business 

o Conservatives in the US began to attack SALT I, saying the US had given too much away and that it allowed the Soviet Union to keep pace 

o When the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan in 1979 détente was well and truly dead 

  

 

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4. RENEWAL AND END OF THE COLD WAR  Reasons for “the Second Cold War”: 

- In the US there was a view amongst conservatives that the USSR had gained much more in the détente than the US – arms control agreements, it was felt, favoured the Soviets who had moved ahead in missile numbers – felt that they’d gained most from technological exchanges and improved trade 

- US suffered a national crisis of confidence due to: 1. Withdrawal from Vietnam War – America’s first defeat in a war – division in 

American society 2. Watergate scandal – loss of faith in America’s leadership and institutions 3. American backed regime of the Shah of Iran was overthrown by Muslim 

fundamentalists – US embassy seized and diplomats taken captive - Nixon replaced by Ford and then Carter replaced him – Carter genuinely tried to 

engage the Soviets in détente by he was considered by conservatives as “soft” and he was severely undermined by the Iran hostages’ crisis/failure of his calls for human rights in Soviet Union/Soviet invasion of Afghanistan 

- Soviets’ resented Carter’s insistence that détente be linked to improvements in human rights 

- Collapse of détente had a lot to do with America trying to restore their position – in hindsight it is clear that the real leadership crisis was in the Soviet Union – Brezhnev was an elderly, sick man – replaced by two more elderly sick men – USSR locked into conservative Cold War mode – continued wasteful arms race/continued adventurism in the Third World/failed to address problems within the country 

 Characteristics of “the Second Cold War”: 

- There was a renewal of the fear of war: both sides openly expressed concern about the likelihood of war e.g. American arms build up 

- Hostile propaganda – Reagan called the Soviet Union “evil”, Gorbachev described Reagan as “dangerous” 

- There was little success in negotiations between the two – more discussion but little achieved 

- Both sides tightened controls on groups within their own society e.g. Reagan criticised “peace” and “anti-nuclear” groups, claiming they were helping the USSR 

- The fear of the Soviet threat again became the focus of US foreign policy   - Soviet invasion of Afghanistan and its impact  

o “Marked the beginning of a brief but intense period of Soviet-American conflict, one of the last in the Cold War” (Rasanayagam, A) 

o Afghanistan acted primarily as a buffer on the USSR’s southern flank o Afghanistan – southern neighbour of the Soviet Union – up until 1979 

Afghanistan had a communist government (People’s Democratic Party of Afghanistan - close ties to USSR – received military and economic aid) 

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o New Afghani leaders met with stiff resistance to many of their racial social and economic reforms – resistance armed thanks to US and Pakistani funding 

o 1979 – this government overthrown by a group of Muslim fundamentalists o The Soviets, under Brezhnev, decided that if a policy of appeasement to 

Afghanistan was employed then the chances of Iran gaining influence in the region through a radical Islamic region was high – new leaders would then welcome the US who could then deploy nuclear missile sites – decided that the least harmful path was to send in troops and re-establish the nation 

o Fearing the conversion of a friendly communist neighbour into a Muslim extremist nation – USSR invaded Afghanistan, overthrew Muslim fundamentalist government regime and reinstated the communist government 

o Dec 1979 – military campaign began – believed it would be a relatively short war – proved to be a long, drawn-out affair costing many Soviet lives and resources – ended in failure 

o The US viewed the occupation of Afghanistan as a strategic move by the USSR to control the Persian Gulf region and as a result deny crucial oil to the US – Carter acted on this view 

o Communist Afghan army and the Soviet troops controlled the cities but in the rugged countryside the ‘mujahideen’ (Afghan fighters), using American supplied weapons, exploited mountainous terrain – invulnerable to Soviet helicopter attacks – led to a need for more Soviet ground troops to find and destroy the mujahideen resistance – result = increased Soviet casualties/drain on Soviet resources 

o February 1989 – Soviet forces conceded defeat and completed their withdrawal from Afghanistan 

o Fundamentalist Muslim groups regained control of Afghanistan  Impact: 

1. The obvious Soviet aggression and fierce US response to it marked a clear dividing line between the hopeful years of détente and the period of dramatically renewed tension that followed – increased tensions between the two superpowers once again 

2. The Soviet experience in Afghanistan had a number of parallels with the American experience in Vietnam – bogged down in a frustrating war where its superior technology and manpower could not overcome the guerrilla tactics of its enemy – Afghanistan was left as a destabilised region whose people would be victims of many more years of violence 

3. The casualties suffered by the Soviet military and drain on resources contributed to internal problems that culminated in the USSR’s collapse in 1991 

4. Cold War impacted when President Carter of the US decided to “curtail trade with the Soviet Union, advocate a Western boycott of the 1980 Olympic Games to be held in Moscow, increase military spending and withdraw the SALT II treaty from senate consideration” 

5. For the first time in almost a decade, a military clash looked possible and nuclear war was once again in the forefront of the public spectrum 

  

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- US attitudes and policies under Reagan  

● Became president in 1981 ● Renewed the Cold War ● Strongly supported by British Prime Minister – Margaret Thatcher ● Was re-elected in 1984 on a wave of patriotism, but the change of 

leadership with the arrival of Gorbachev in the Soviet Union moved Reagan back towards détente 

  Attitudes: 

→ Reagan believed that communism limited human freedom, denied choice and ultimately killed the human spirit 

→ Preferred to take a hard line against what he called the “evil empire” of the Soviet Union 

→ Critics in the US pointed out the fact that SDI was an unproven technology that was expensive to the US public. As a Jerome Weisner, a former presidential scientific adviser said “there are 10000 or more nuclear warheads on each side. A defence system that would knock out 90-95% would be a miracle – and the remaining 5 – 10% would be enough to totally destroy civilization” 

→ US citizens were also concerned about the rising anti-Soviet rhetoric from the White House and feared that a nuclear war was imminent. Protests grew to a crescendo in June 1982 when 1 million Americans protested across the country – public support plummeted 

→ Things that created support for SDI: ▪ Events in Afghanistan, Central America and Africa ▪ The assassination attempt on Pope John Paul II who supported the 

US ▪ The Korean Airlines disaster – 1983 – passenger jet accidentally 

entered Soviet airspace and was shot down ▪ STARTs discussions on nuclear arms reductions, intermediate-range 

weapons and conventional forces in Europe ended in chaos when the Soviets walked out due to demands made by the Americans 

 Policies: 

→ Tough and anti-Soviet rhetoric → Strongly opposed to détente and the SALT II Treaty because he believed that it 

weakened the US and benefited the USSR → In elections he promised much needed economic reforms and when he 

became president, he tried to do this by: ▪ Increasing worker productivity ▪ Lowering taxes ▪ Reducing government regulations of industry and employment 

→ Returned to military rather than diplomatic ways of containing communism: ▪ Increased defence expenditure to the largest amount ever in 

peacetime ▪ Increased arms supply to the rebels in Afghanistan ▪ Tried to contain communism activity in Central America 

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→ Embarked on a “get tough” approach – e.g. demonstrations of US military might and purpose such as the invasion of Grenada in 1983 (to oust a new left-wing government) and the bombing of Libya – accused of sponsoring terrorism 

→ 1983 – Reagan announced the development of a new defence system, the Strategic Defence Initiative (SDI), or the “Star Wars” proposal – satellites could destroy incoming missiles and could protect the US from nuclear attack – worried Soviets, Europeans and nuclear protestors because it suggested the possibility that the US could launch a “first strike” nuclear attack without the fear of retaliation – Reagan’s advisers spoke of a “winnable nuclear war” – anxiety! – cost the US $1.5 trillion 

→ 1983 – Reagan deployed cruise missiles in Europe → Reagan Doctrine: Although the US would avoid wars such as Vietnam, it would 

support pro-US regimes in the Third World and back anti-communist groups to overthrow left-wing governments 

→ 1985 – last years of Reagan – there was progress in arms controls, Gorbachev entered 

→ Economic reforms – increased productivity but national debt rose significantly and his economic policy was a factor in the October 1987 Wall Street Crash, which bigger than the 1929 one except it was not followed by a depression 

→ Reagan wrongly believed that an arms race would put great strain on the Soviet economy and thus bring the nation, and in effect, communism to an inevitable demise – consequence – budget deficit spiralled out of control 

→ Policy of “Peace by strength” → “I believe that communism is another sad, bizarre chapter in human history 

whose last-last pages even now are being written”   - Soviet attitudes and policies under Gorbachev  

● Born into a peasant family ● March 1985 – Mikhail Gorbachev assumes leadership in the USSR ● Relatively young man who brought energy and a new agenda to the role ● When Gorbachev came into power, he inherited many problems. The 

economy continued to shrink, becoming half the size of the United State’s in 1985 due to the cessation of the oil-boom. Living standards were low, infant mortality high and life expectancy was declining. He realized that something had to be done to save the Communist Party 

 Attitudes: 

→ Glasnost and Perestroika – government faced with increasingly vocal criticism → Nationalist tendencies of the East European satellite states, which up till now 

had been severely repressed, were released → Benefits of glasnost and perestroika – highlighted failures of the Soviet systems 

(Soviet economy continued to decline rapidly as consumer items disappeared off shelves, medicine and food were in short supply, there were long queues at shops and black markets flourished. Communism proved to be a failed system 

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and perestroika could not save it) – sudden collapse of communism – removed ideological component of the Cold War 

→ Perestroika had weakened the economy as the totalitarian structure of the Soviet Union ensured the reforms were ineffective, leading to shortages in food and consumer goods 

→ Perestroika and Glasnost - the policy did not go a planned as people started using the new openness to criticise Soviet history and its leaders - people now spoke openly about the murder of the Romanovs, Collectivisation, the purge trials and the 5 million gulags (political prisoners) that died from the 1930s to 1980s. They were also able to read literature that was not available due to censorship 

→ “New Economic Program” – private enterprises not profitable – black markets and inflation sprang up – labour unrest was a way for citizens to vent their anger 

→ Became a popular man in the US – TIME magazine named him “Man of the decade” 

→ His moves not only decreased the Soviet Union’s ability to wage full scale war but also signalled to the US and the world that the USSR was no longer willing to compete in the Cold War when their internal problems are in need of such urgent attention  Policies: 

→ Realised a radical change was needed to address the problems of the Soviet economy – realised the closed nature of the communist system left it ill- equipped to deal with the problems of the consumer sector or the challenges posed by the info age 

→ Introduced two reforms, glasnost (media and people gained freedoms – freedom of expression and information)and perestroika (introduced democracy to Soviet politics and a limited free market) – aimed at opening up and restructuring Soviet society – solved few problems – the new openness led to more info being available to the people about the problems plaguing their economy 

→ 1985 Geneva Summit – Gorbachev and Reagan agreed on some issues, e.g. to improve Soviet-US relations through ongoing dialogue and further meetings in the near future, nuclear war could never be won and must never be fought, etc. 

→ Internal reform was his priority – it was clear to Gorbachev that the USSR could no longer afford the Cold War – embarked on a series of summits with Reagan: 

▪ 1987 INF Treaty – abolished a category of nuclear weapons – both sides were able to agree on a way of supervising this process – atmosphere where nuclear disarmament could finally make real progress 

▪ Once trust established – Western nations began to provide the USSR with aid 

→ The ‘New Economic Program’ was introduced in 1987. It established: ▪ a new system of self-accounting which was related to the 

profitability of state-run enterprises ▪ procedures to improve the rights of citizens, including the right to 

sue officials who infringed citizens’ rights  

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▪ private enterprise cooperatives → 1988 – Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan → June 1989 – successful visit to West Germany – announced the Berlin Wall 

might someday be dismantled – signal that the USSR was no longer interested in applying the Brezhnev Doctrine to Easter Europe - Rapid change followed in Easter Europe e.g. demonstrations in East Germany went unchallenged 

→ Supported reforms in East Germany, Poland, Hungary and Czechoslovakia – allowed the communist regimes in these countries to collapse and be replaced with democratically elected, non-communist governments – withdrew Soviet troops from these countries 

→ February 1991 – the Warsaw Pact was dissolved – end to Soviet domination of Eastern Europe  

 

- Disarmament agreements 1987 - 1991 

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  - Collapse of communism in Eastern Europe and the USSR  USSR moved towards democracy – Gorbachev could not retain control in Russia – nationalism fuelled calls for self-determination USA appearing to be less of a threat- technical problems limited Star Wars program, congress refused to pass Reagan’s defence budget When Gorbachev released the Eastern Bloc from Soviet control, many of those nations decided to convert to a non-communist style government in order to escape the oppressive horrors they had witnessed behind the iron curtain e.g. Poland – buoyed on by the success of the US in the Cold War and significantly improved liberties and conditions – first non-communist power in the Eastern Bloc for 42 years – others followed e.g. Bulgaria, Hungary etc. 

 

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Name  Date  Description Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty (INF) 

8th December 1987 

- Signed in Washington D.C. - Agreement between the US and the USSR - Allowed both nations to inspect each other’s 

military installations - Banned nuclear and conventional 

ground-launched ballistic and cruise missiles with ranges of 500 to 5500 kms 

- By the deadline of June 1 1991, 2692 banned weapons had been destroyed 

Agreements on notifications of missile launches 

1988  - Aimed to reduce the risk of nuclear war as a result of misinterpretation, miscalculation or accident 

Washington Summit meeting 

May-June 1990 

- Meeting between Gorbachev and Bush 

Conventional Forces in Europe (CFE) agreement 

19th November 1990 

- Signed between NATO and the Warsaw Pact 

Treaty of Paris  21st November 1990 

- USSR, US and 30 other nations signed - Non-aggression pact between NATO and Warsaw 

Pact - Bush declares Cold War is over 

Strategic Arms Reduction Talks treaty (START) 

31st July 1991 

- Placed limits on the number of various types of vehicles and attributed warheads that could be deployed by either side 

- ICBM’s were highly regulated and identified as the most dangerous weapons that either side possessed 

Eastern Europe: In the Ukraine, the native language was used more often, and even though they followed perestroika, the Ukrainian Popular Front and other democratic organizations promoted the rights of Ukrainians Riots broke out in the wake of perestroika in Kazakhstan as people demonstrated anger over the conditions – political movements – demanded an end to nuclear testing – Kazakh language became the official one March 11 1990, Lithuania declared its independence from the USSR Uzbekistan declared its independence in June 1990 with Ukraine and Belorussia following in July. In August, they were followed by Turkmenistan, Armenia and Tajikistan - Gorbachev had under-estimated these nationalist movements. It seems that by trying to save the USSR with his policies, he unwittingly caused its demise February 1991 – the Warsaw Pact was dissolved – end to Soviet domination in Eastern Europe  USSR: Gorbachev’s policies of glasnost and perestroika allowed underground nationalist movements to move out into the open, voicing their anger and demands for independence from Moscow  The end of the Cold War gave Gorbachev an opportunity to reform communism without pressure from the tensions, but the momentum of glasnost and perestroika was too great and allowed the democratization process to ultimately destroy communism Further demonstrating the fall of communism were events such as: 

o The withdrawal of Soviet troops from Hungary and Czechoslovakia 

o Soviet acceptance of German reunification on 3 October 1990 and Germany’s membership in NATO. 

o Joining the US-led coalition to remove Saddam Hussein’s Iraqi military forces from Kuwait 

14 March 1989 - a newly created Congress of People’s deputies voted to end the Communist Party’s control over the government, Gorbachev was elected executive president Unsuccessful anti-Gorbachev coup by Soviet empire supporters - August 1991 - shifted greater authority to the Russian president, Boris Yeltsin - accelerated change Gorbachev dissolved the Communist Party, granted the Baltic states their independence and proposed a much looser economic federation between the remaining republics The formation of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) on 8 December 1991, made the Soviet federal government redundant. On 25 December, Gorbachev resigned as president and the USSR ceased to exist on 31 December 1991 

 

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1988 – Hungarian Communist Party reformed itself from within, democratised the country and opened Hungary borders with Austria 

   

Flood of refugees from East Germany via Hungary – Forced reform and this led to the collapse of the East German communist dictatorship 

   

Anti-communist Solidarity Party won the first democratic election to be held in Poland since before WWII 

   

Protest led to reform in Czechoslovakia in that year – within three years the forces of nationalism had separated Czechoslovakia into two autonomous nations 

– the Czech Republic and Slovakia    

November 1989 – popular demonstrations against the East German government – easing of restrictions – opening up of the Wall allowing East Berliners 

free access to West Berlin    

Population smashed down wall – symbol of repression and the division of Germany 

   

East Germany no longer a communist state – no obstacle to German reunification – formalised on 3rd October 1990 

   

Romania – only place with real bloodshed – the demonstrations against autocratic communist dictator Nicolae Ceausescu met with armed resistance from 

security forces – the regular army joined against Ceausescu – after four days he was defeated, tried and executed 

 

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In the Soviet Union… Small territories such as Estonia and the Ukraine – resided within the borders of 

the USSR – decided to convert to a non-communist style government and claim independence – this, coupled with demise of communism in Eastern Europe and the factionalist government that was trying to undermine Gorbachev’s leadership caused an already economically poor country into deeper political and economical anguish – failed coup against Gorbachev – undermined his leadership – several parties wanting to “revitalise” Russia in different ways - impossible for Gorbachev to find a cogent (convincing/believable) compromise – communism was dead 

  Why did the Cold War end? 

→ Had to end sooner or later – the old bipolar world of the superpowers was giving way to a multi-polar world with new power centres e.g. China and Japan – both superpowers were at risk of being bypassed if they didn’t address issues such as technological development 

→ There’s a view that Reagan brought the Cold War to an end – SDI meant that the Soviets would have to match the US in technology – couldn’t afford it – had to give up the Cold War – part of a larger view that argues American won the Cold War e.g. “The West, and especially the U.S., had shown remarkable patience and had practiced prudence in its statecraft to bring about the victory” (S. E. Ambrose) 

→ View that the end of the Cold War “represented not so much a victory for one side as a matter of the other side declining to continue to take part in the contest” (D McLean) – Cold War ended because the Soviet system collapsed - not just because of Reagan – failure of communism was evident for some time – disguised by the USSR’s status – Gorbachev’s reforms revealed the extent of the problems 

→ Gorbachev must be given credit – Nobel Peace Prise in 1990 – had the courage and foresight to look at things in a new way and take radical actions – compromised in a way that was completely new for a Cold War leader – “he compromised on long-held Soviet claims and accepted many of the premises of the US negotiating position”   Kissinger linked “cooperation in one area to progress in another” 

   

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President of USA 

Leader of USSR  Developing the Cold War  Developing Peaceful Co-existence 

Truman (democrat) 1945-53 

Stalin 1930-53  1947 – Formation of the CIA, Truman Doctrine, Marshall Plan, Cominform  1948-49 – Berlin Blockade  1949 – Communist China, USSR gets A-bomb  1950 – USSR-China Treaty  1951-53 – Korean War  1952 – USA got the H-bomb 

 

Eisenhower (Republican) 1953-61        Kennedy (democrat) 1961-63 

Khrushchev 1953-64 

1954 – SEATO  1956 – Invasion of Hungary  1960 – U2 spy plane shot down over the USSR  1961 – US commitment to Vietnam  1961 – (April) Bay of Pigs, (August) Berlin wall erected  1962 – Increased US involvement in South Vietnam, Cuban missile crisis 

1953 – Armistice in Korea  1956 – Khrushchev attacked Stalin’s policies and desired peaceful co-existence  1959 – Khrushchev in USA  1960 – Paris Summit meeting  1961 – Vienna Summit meeting  1963 – Telephone hotline established between the White House and Kremlin  1963 – Nuclear test ban treaty 

Johnson (democrat) 1963-69    Nixon (republican) 1969-74              

Brezhnev 1964-82 

1964 – USA commenced bombing of North Vietnam  1968 – Soviet intervention in Czechoslovakia  1970-71 – US military action in Cambodia and Laos                 

1967 – Multilateral treaty banned military use of outer space    1969 – SALT talks began; Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty signed  1971 – US-Soviet Nuclear Accidents Agreement – USA sells $136 million  1972 – SALT I signed  1973 – Summit in Washington; non-aggression pact  1973 – Peace with Vietnam   

 

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Ford (republican) 1974-77  Carter (democrat) 1977-81 

  1979 – Soviet invasion of Afghanistan  1980 – USA boycott Moscow Olympics 

1975 – Ford and Brezhnev attend 35-nation meeting in Helsinki  1979 – SALT II signed 

Reagan (republican) 1981-89 

Andropov 1982-84    Chernenko 1984-85  Gorbachev 1985-91 

1983 – Soviets shot down Korean airliner  1983 – USA invaded Grenada 

1983 – SALT talks commenced in Geneva       1986 – Summit at Reykjavik  1987 – Intermediate Nuclear Forces Treaty 

Bush (republican) 1989-93 

Gorbachev 1985-91 

  1991 – START Treaty signed 

Historiography of the Cold War:  

☺ Heated debate among historians ☺ About the causes of the war: 

● Orthodox theory – blames the ambitions of the Soviet Union, concentrating on the fact that democratic capitalism could not tolerate communism 

● Revisionist theory – blames American ambition, focusing on American economic imperialism – points out Soviet’s wish for buffer zone was not unreasonable 

● Post-revisionist theory – avoids blaming either sides, focuses on poor communication and lack of understanding at the end of WWII 

 “The ‘Big Two’ have, in a dual sense, become the leading forces in the world. Their lead in arms technology has given them exclusive possession of total destructive power and thus had made them the ultimate determinants of human destiny” P. Fliess - 1968  “Distrust between the superpowers received impetus from the clashing ideologies of capitalism and communism” H. Jones - 1985 

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