Chapter 28 Jessica Fortner Cold War. Development of the Cold War The years between 1945 and 1949 were characterized by the rising of mutual fears of the

Chapter 28Jessica Fortner

Cold War

Development of the Cold War

• The years between 1945 and 1949 were characterized by the rising of mutual fears of the world’s two superpowers, the US and the Soviet Union, to a level of intense competition.

• Eastern Europe was the first area of disagreement.

• The US and Great Britain had championed self-determination and democratic freedom for these nations, but Stalin was fearful that the Eastern European nations would return to traditional anti-Soviet attitudes.

• The Red Army installed pro-Soviet regimes in Poland, Romania, Bulgaria, and Hungary after liberating them from the Nazis. These governments were a buffer zone for the Soviet Union.

Development of the Cold War• In 1946, the Communist People’s Liberation Army and the

anti-Communist forces supported by the British were fighting each other for control of Greece.

• President Truman was alarmed by British weakness and the possibility of Soviet expansion into the eastern Mediterranean.

• Truman Doctrine- The doctrine, enunciated by Harry Truman in 1947, that stated the US would provide economic aid to countries that said they were threatened by Communist expansion.

• In March 1947, Truman requested $400 million in economic and military aid for Greece and Turkey from the US Congress.


• The Truman Doctrine was followed in June 1947 by the European Recovery Program, better known as the Marshall Plan.

• $13 billion was included in this program to help stabilize the European economy. This plan was based off the belief that Communist aggression fed off of economic turmoil.

• Marshall Plan- The US provided financial aid to European countries to help them rebuild after World War II.

• In an article in Foreign Affairs in July 1947, George Kennan, a well-known American diplomat with much knowledge of Soviet affairs, advocated a policy of containment against further aggressive Soviet moves.


• Containment- A policy adopted by the US in the Cold War. Its goal was to use whatever means, short of all-out war, to limit Soviet expansion.

• After the Soviet blockade of Berlin in 1948, containment of the USSR became formal American policy.

• The Soviets, hardest hit by the war, took reparations from Germany in the form of booty.

• They dismantled and removed to the Soviet Union 380 factories from the western zones of Berlin before giving control to the Western powers.

• By the summer of 1946, 200 chemical, paper, and textile factories in the Soviets’ East German zones had also been shipped to the Soviet Union.

Development of the Cold War• By 1948, the British, French, and Americans were making plans

for the unification of their three western sections of Germany and the formal creation of a West German federal government.

• The Soviets responded with a blockade of West Berlin that allowed neither trucks nor trains to enter the three western zones of Berlin.

• The Soviets hoped to secure economic control of all Berlin and force the Western powers to halt the creation of a separate West German state.

• No one wanted to risk WWIII with direct military confrontation, so the solution was the Berlin Air Lift.

• At its peak, 13,000 tons of supplies were flown to Berlin daily.

The Berlin Air Lift

Development of the Cold War• The blockade was lifted in May 1949, but the tension between

the superpowers had increased.

• After the blockade was lifted, Germany was split into two states.

• The German Federal Republic (West Germany)

• The German Democratic Republic (East Germany)

• The Soviet Union detonated its first atomic bomb in 1949 resulting in an arms race between the superpowers.

• The search for security throughout the world was found in two ways: mutual deterrence and the formation of military alliances.

• Mutual deterrence was the belief that an arsenal of nuclear weapons prevented war because if one nation launched its nuclear weapons, the other nation would still be able to launch its own and devastate its attacker.


• The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) -1949

• Belgium, Britain, Denmark, France, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, and Portugal signed a treaty with the US and Canada. Later added were West Germany, Greece, and Turkey.

• They agreed to provide mutual assistance if any one of them was attacked.

• The Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON) - 1949

• Eastern European states

• Warsaw Pact - 1955

• Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland, Romania, and the USSR organized this military alliance.

Development of the Cold War• Korea had been liberated from the Japanese in 1945 but split

into two parts along the 38th parallel.

• The land north became the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (North Korea) supported by the Soviet Union. The land south was The Republic of Korea (South Korea) supported by the US.

• On June 25, 1950, North Korean troops invaded South Korea. The Americans gained the support of the United Nations and intervened by sending American troops to turn back the invasion.

• By September, UN forces marched northward across the 38th parallel with the aim of unifying Korea under a single non- Communist government.


• Mao Zedong, the leader of Communist China, sent Chinese forces to Korea and forced the UN troops back to South Korea. After two more years of fighting, an armistice was signed in 1953 leaving the boundaries basically the same.


• In the mid- 1950s under President Eisenhower, a policy of massive retaliation was adopted in the US. • This advocated the full use of American nuclear bombs to counteract

even a Soviet ground attack in Europe.

• The Central Treaty Organization (CENTO)• This was intended to prevent the Soviet Union from expanding at the

expense of its southern neighbors. This was signed by Turkey, Iraq, Iran, Pakistan, Great Britain, and the US.

• Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO)• US, Britain, France, Pakistan, Thailand, the Philippines, Australia, and

New Zealand

• By the mid- 1950s, the US was allied militarily with 42 states around the world.

Development of the Cold War• In August 1957, the Soviet Union had launched its first

intercontinental ballistic missile and Sputnik I, the first space satellite.

• Fears of a “missile gap” between the US and the Soviet Union seized the American public.

• Nikita Khrushchev, the new leader of the Soviet Union, attempted to take advantage of the American frenzy over the missiles to solve the problem of West Berlin.

• In November 1958, Khrushchev announced that unless the West removed its forces from West Berlin within six months, he would turn over control of the access routes to Berlin to the East Germans.


• Eisenhower and the West stood firm and Khrushchev backed down.

• Khrushchev tried again with the ultimatum against President Kennedy, but was again forced to back down.

• Frustrated, Khrushchev conspired with Walter Ulbricht, the East German leader, to build a wall around West Berlin to cut off the flow of refugees to the West.

• On August 31, 1961, East German workers under military supervision began the construction of the Berlin Wall.

• Within a few months, more than 100 miles of wall surrounded West Berlin.

• Access from West Germany into West Berlin was still permitted so the Americans accepted the wall’s existence.

• This wall became a powerful symbol of a divided Europe.


• In 1959, a left-wing revolutionary named Fidel Castro had overthrown the Cuban dictator and established a Soviet-supported totalitarian regime. In 1961, an American- supported attempt to invade Cuba via the Bay of Pigs and overthrow Castro’s regime ended in utter failure. The next year, the Soviet Union decided to station nuclear missiles in Cuba. President Kennedy decided to blockade Cuba and prevent any nuclear weapons from reaching Cuba. Khrushchev decided to turn back the fleet carrying the nuclear weapons if Kennedy pledged not to invade Cuba.

• A hotline communication system between Moscow and Washington was installed in 1963 to further communication between the two superpowers in a time of crisis. In the same year, the two powers agreed to ban nuclear tests in the atmosphere.


• After Vietnamese forces defeated their French colonial masters in 1954, Vietnam was divided. Ho Chi Minh ruled the strongly nationalistic regime in the north which received Soviet aid, while a pro-Western regime in South Vietnam under Ngo Dinh Diem was sponsored by the Americans. Diem’s regime was corrupt and incapable of gaining the people’s support.

• In 1964, increasing numbers of American troops were sent to Vietnam to fight the Vietcong, the South Vietnamese Communist guerrillas backed by the North Vietnamese, and keep the Communist regime of the north from uniting the entire country under its control.

Development of the Cold War• American policy makers saw this conflict in terms of a

domino theory. This was the belief that if the Communists succeeded in Vietnam, other countries in Southeast and East Asia would also fall to communism.

• The war resulted from the American perception that it needed to keep Communism from expanding, while Ho Chi Minh saw the struggle between North and South as an attempt to overthrow Western colonial masters and achieve self-determination for the Vietnamese people.

• US forces failed to prevail over the persistence of the North Vietnamese and especially the Vietcong. Many South Vietnamese villagers were so opposed to their own government that they sheltered and supported the Vietcong.

Development of the Cold War• In 1973, President Nixon reached an

agreement with North Vietnam that allowed the US to withdraw its forces.

• Within two years, Vietnam had been forcibly reunited by communist armies from the North.

• Vietnam helped show the limitations of American powers.

• By the end of the Vietnam War, a new era in American-Soviet relations, known as détente, had begun to emerge.

• This was the relaxation of tension between the Soviet Union and the US that occurred in the 1970s.

Europe and the World: Decolonization• Between 1947 and 1962, virtually every colony achieved

independence and attained statehood.

• Decolonization was a difficult process, but it created a new world as the non-Western States ended the long era of Western domination.

• African political parties were mostly non-violent and led by Western-educated African intellectuals.

• In Kenya, however, the Mau Mau movement among the Kikuyu peoples used terrorism to demand uhuru (Swahili for “freedom”) from the British.

Europe and the World: Decolonization• In South Africa, political activity

by local blacks began with the formation of the African National Congress (ANC).• Led by Nelson Mandela, it was a

group of intellectuals whose goal was to gain economic and political reforms like full equality for educated Africans.

• By the 1950s, South African whites were strengthening the laws separating whites and blacks, creating a system of racial segregation known as apartheid. Nelson

Mandela

Europe and the World: Decolonization• After the news of the Holocaust spread, sympathy for the Jewish

cause of getting a Jewish state increased.

• On May 14, 1948, the state of Israel was declared when the United Nations divided Palestine into a Jewish state and an Arab state.

• Colonel Gamal Abdel Nasser seized control of the Egyptian government in 1954.

• Nasser promoted Pan-Arabism, also known as Arab unity.

• At a meeting of Arab leaders held in Jerusalem in 1964, Egypt took the lead in forming the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) to represent the interests of the Palestinians.

• A guerrilla movement called al-Fatah, led by the PLO leader Yasir Arafat, began to launch terrorist attacks on Israeli territory.

Europe and the World: Decolonization

Six Day War

• Nasser of Egypt imposed a blockade against Israeli shipping in the spring of 1967.

• Learning that an attack was imminent, on June 5, 1967, Israel launched preemptive air strikes against Egypt and several of its Arab neighbors.

• Israeli warplanes bombed 17 Egyptian airfields and wiped out most of the air force.

• Israeli armies broke through the blockade, occupied the Sinai Peninsula, and seized Jordanian territory on the West Bank.

• Israel devastated Nasser’s forces and tripled the size of its territory.

Europe and the World: Decolonization• When Britain began to grant independence to India, ethnic

and religious differences made the process difficult.

• At the end of World War II, the British negotiated with both the Indian National Congress, which was mostly Hindu, and the Muslim League.

• Britain realized that British India would have to be divided into two countries, one Hindu (India) and one Muslim (Pakistan).

• Mahatma Gandhi was the only Congress leader opposed to the division of India because he believed that it could only happen with an “orgy of blood”.

Europe and the World: Decolonization• At the end of World War II, two Chinese governments existed

side by side: The Nationalist government of Chiang Kai-shek supported by the Americans, and the Communist government under the leadership of Mao Zedong.

• In October 1949, the Communists took over the government with a goal of building a socialist society.

• When collective farms failed to increase food production, Mao began a more radical program known as the Great Leap Forward in 1958. • This was a disaster because of bad weather and peasant hatred of

the new system.

• In 1966, Mao unleashed the Red Guards to cleanse Chinese society of impure elements. This Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution lasted for ten years.

Recovery and Renewal in Europe• Stalin’s economic policy was successful in promoting

growth in heavy industry.

• Khrushchev’s rule took a different direction:• Emphasis on light industry and consumer goods• Ending of forced labor camps• He condemned Stalin for his violence, repression, and terror.• Destalinization- The policy of denouncing and undoing the

most repressive aspects of Stalin’s regime

• This inspired a spirit of rebellion in the Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe.

• All of the Eastern European countries that the Soviets occupied after the war were under Communist leaders by 1948.

• Both Albania and Yugoslavia had strong Communist resistance movements during the war, so the Communist Party simply took over power when the war ended.

• Between 1948 and Stalin’s death in 1953, the Eastern European countries followed a policy of Stalinization (the adoption of features of the economic, political, and military policies implemented by Stalin in the USSR)

• Five year plans focused on heavy industry

• Collectivize agriculture

• Eliminated all non-Communist parties

• Soviets economically exploited the EE states through reparations.

Recovery and Renewal in Europe

• The Polish Communist Party adopted a series of reforms in October 1956 in response to Khrushchev’s denunciation of Stalin.

• In Hungary, their newly appointed leader declared the country a free nation in 1956. This Hungarian uprising was crushed three days later by the invasion of the Red Army who crushed the uprising.

• In Czechoslovakia, a writer’s rebellion in 1967 resulted in Alexander Dubcek’s election to the position of first secretary of the Communist Party. He soon introduced a number of reforms:• Freedom of speech and the press

• Freedom to travel abroad

• A relaxation of the secret police activities

• A period of euphoria erupted from these reforms that came to be known as “Prague Spring”.

• The Red Army invaded in 1968 and crushed the reform movement.


• By the 1950s, moderate political parties had made a remarkable comeback in Western Europe. The new Christian Democratic parties weren’t connected to the prewar church-based parties that had been advocates of church interests; they were interested in democracy and economic reforms.

• During the war, Charles de Gaulle had assumed leadership of some resistance groups and played an important role in ensuring the establishment of a French provisional government.

• After the declaration of the Fourth Republic, de Gaulle formed the French Popular Movement, a rightist organization that helped de Gaulle gain the power of the French president.

• In 1958, de Gaulle drafted a new constitution for the Fifth Republic in which he became the president.



• The unification of the three Western zones into the Federal Republic of Germany occurred in 1949.

• Konrad Adenauer became the “founding hero” of the Federal Republic because his rule led to the resurrection of the West German economy, which is known as the “economic miracle.”

• This was largely guided by the minister of finance, Ludwig Erhard, who pursued a policy of a new currency, free markets, low taxes, and elimination of controls, which led to rapid economic growth.

• After World War II, the Labour Party became the most popular in Great Britain. Under Clement Attlee, the government enacted reforms that created a modern welfare state.

• This began with the nationalization of the Bank of England, the coal and steel industries, public transportation, and public utilities.

• In the area of social welfare, the National Insurance Act and the National Health Service Act established social security and a system of socialized medicine.

• The British welfare state became the model for most European states after the war.

• As a result of World War II, Britain’s debt forced it to lose its status of a world power.


• In the same year, these six nations signed the Rome Treaty, which created the European Economic Community (EEC), also known as the Common Market.

• The EEC eliminated customs barriers for the six member nations and created a large free-trade area protected from the rest of the world by a common external tariff.

• All the members benefited economically.

• It became the world’s largest exporter and purchaser of raw materials.


• In 1951, France, West Germany, the Benelux countries, and Italy formed the European Coal and Steel Community that had the purpose of creating a common market for coal and steel products among the six nations by eliminating tariffs and other trade barriers.

The United States and Canada: A New Era

• Roosevelt’s New Deal ideas had brought basic changes to American society that lasted throughout the Cold War.

• Labor unions grew throughout these years and real wages rose.

• Johnson’s presidency was focused on pursuing the Great Society, which was the next step following the New Deal.

• The programs included with this were health care for the elderly, a “war on poverty” to be fought with food stamps and the new Job Corps, the new Department of Housing and Urban Development to deal with the problems of the cities, and federal assistance for education.

• One of the ideas that Johnson also worked toward was equal rights for African Americans.


• Martin Luther King Jr. became the leader of a growing movement for racial equality.• His March on Washington had an amazing effect

on the American citizens by raising their awareness of the civil rights issue.

• Between 1965 and 1967 race riots broke out all over the US, and after Martin Luther King Jr.’s assassination, more than one hundred cities broke out in riots.• The combination of riots and extremist comments

by radical black leaders led to a “white backlash” and a severe division of the American population.

• Canada began to develop engineering industries on a large scale to add to their strong export economy.

• Much of this growth was American funded and resulted with American ownership of Canadian businesses.

• The North American Air Defense Command (NORAD) was formed in 1957 to maintain close cooperation between the air forces of the two countries to defend against missile attacks.


Postwar Society and Culture in the Western World

• There was a dramatic shift of people from rural to urban areas after 1945.

• Also, and increase in real wages enabled the formation of the consumer society.

• This is the Western society that emerged after World War II as the working classes adopted the consumption patterns of the middle class.

• Between 1900 and 1960, the workweek was reduced from sixty hours to a little over forty hours.

• The extra leisure time and higher wages led to increased travel opportunities.


• The British welfare system was based on the belief that women should stay home with their children.

• Employers were encouraged to pay women lower wages to discourage them from joining the workforce.

• The West German government passed laws that discouraged women from working.

• France sought to maintain the individual rights of women.

• The government recognized women as equal to men.

• Incentives were provided for women to stay home and bear children as well as day care and after school programs for working mothers.


• After the war, women were removed from the workforce to provide jobs for the soldiers returning home.

• With the trend toward smaller families came an increase of women in the workforce in the US last decades of the 20th century.

• This trend was present in European countries too.

• Women were still normally paid less than men.

• Also, women still tended to enter traditionally female jobs.

• After World War I, many governments granted women suffrage. It wasn’t until after World War II that the countries of France and Italy granted their women the right to vote.


• By the 1960s, women began to speak as feminists as a renewed interest of feminism, or the women’s liberation movement, came about.

• Simone de Beauvoir published her influential work, The Second Sex, in which she argued that as a result of male-dominated societies, women had been defined by their differences from men and consequently received second-class status.

• Betty Friedan published The Feminine Mystique, in which she argued that women were being denied equality with men.

• In 1966, she founded the National Organization for Women, whose goal was to take “action to bring women into full participation in the mainstream of American society.”


• The permissive society was a label used to describe the new society of postwar Europe.

• A term applied to Western society after World War II to reflect the new sexual freedom and the emergence of a drug culture.

• The introduction of the birth control pill, gave people more freedom in sexual behavior.

• Divorce rates increased dramatically.

• The appearance of Playboy magazine in the 1950s also added a new dimension to the sexual revolution for adult males.

• The decade of the 1960s also saw the emergence of Marijuana use as a recreational drug.


• Jean Dubuffet was a French artist who adopted an intentionally raw style of art to depict the atrocities wrought by global conflict and genocide. He rejected notions of beauty to capture the effects of war. He developed Art Brut, a gritty style that suggested no formal training.


• New York City replaced Paris as the artistic center of the West.

• Abstract Expressionism was energetic and spontaneous. Jackson Pollock was one of the best-known practitioners of this art form.

• Pop Art, an artistic movement of the 1950s and 1960s in which artist took images of popular culture and transformed them into works of fine art. Andy Warhol became the most famous of the American Pop artists.


• The most significant new trend in postwar literature was called the “Theater of the Absurd.” This new convention in drama began in France in the 1950s, although its most famous proponent was the Irishman Samuel Beckett who lived in France. In Beckett’s Waiting for Godot, the action on stage is not realistic. Two men wait for the appearance of someone. The suspense is maintained by having the audience wonder what is happing now.

• The sense of meaninglessness that inspired the Theater of the Absurd also stressed existentialism.

• Existentialism- a philosophical movement that arose after World War II that emphasized the meaninglessness of life, born of the desperation caused by two world wars.

• This became well known through the works of Jean-Paul Sartre and Albert Camus.


• Protestant Karl Barth attempted to reinterpret the religious insights of the Reformation era for the modern world. The sinful and hence imperfect nature of human beings meant that humans could know religious truth not through reason but only through the grace of God.

• In the Catholic Church, Pope John XXIII sparked a dramatic revival of Catholicism.


• Motion pictures were the primary source for the spreading of American popular culture in the postwar years.

• In 1957, the film The Seventh Seal by the Swedish director Ingmar Bergman was a good example of the successful European art film.

• Francois Truffaut in France and Federico Fellini in Italy were directors who experimented with subject matter and technique and produced films dealing with more complex and daring themes than Hollywood would attempt.

• The United States has dominated popular music since the end of World War II.

• The music originated in the US and spread throughout the world to transform into something different.


Through the 1950s, American figures such as


inspired the Beatles and other British performers.

• These British groups then led an “invasion” of the US in the 1960s.


Some of the popular music in the 1960s focused on social issues. “Peace and Love” was promoted through the music.

SocialGreat Proletarian Cultural Revolution“Prague Spring”Great Britain’s welfare stateThe Great SocietyMartin Luther King and “white backlash”The “consumer society”Women’s liberation movementSimone de BeauvoirBetty Friedan“Permissive society” Playboy birth control pillJackson Pollock and Abstract ExpressionismAndy Warhol and Pop ArtSamuel Beckett’s Waiting for GodotExistentialism and Jean Paul Sartre and Albert CamusIngmar Bergman, Francois Truffaut, and Federico FelliniElvis Presley and the Beatles“Peace and Love”

PoliticalThe superpowers

Containment

Berlin blockade

NATO

Korean War

Missile gap

Massive retaliation

CENTO

SEATO

Nikita Khrushchev

Berlin Wall

Bay of Pigs

Cuban Missile Crisis

Vietnam War

Détente

African National Congress

Apartheid

PLO

al-Fatah

Yasir Arafat

Six-Day War

Indian National Congress

Mahatma Gandhi and an “orgy of blood”

Mao Zedong

Stalinization

Destalinization

Hungarian uprising

Christian Democratic parties

Charles de Gaulle’s Fifth Republic

Konrad Adenauer

Great Britain’s welfare state

ReligiousPope John XXII

IntellectualDomino theoryWomen’s liberation movementExistentialism

TechnologicalSputnik IEconomicalTruman Doctrine

Marshall Plan

COMECON

Great Leap Forward

Stalinization and Destalinization

West Germany’s “economic miracle”

European Coal and Steel Community

EEC/Common Market

Documents

Chapter 28 Jessica Fortner Cold War. Development of the Cold War The years between 1945 and 1949 were characterized by the rising of mutual fears of the