COLD WAR

Chapter 30

Cold WarCOLD WAR AND RECOVERY: 1945-1968Roots of Cold War• Teheran Conference, 1943: USSR guaranteed to be only power to liberate Eastern Europe• Yalta Conference, 1945:

– Stalin pledged to allow democratic elections in E Europe (but later reneged)– Germany would be divided into four zones controlled by U S , France, Britain and USSR

• After war, Soviets dominated their zone and did not allow reunification of Germany

• Potsdam Conference, 1945: – Truman demanded free elections in Eastern Europe but Stalin refused– Stalin wanted a "buffer zone" between Germany and USSR for protection against future war Yalta

Conference (1945)• U S point of view:

– Stalin seemed intent on creating "spheres" of influence in Eastern Europe• Broke pledges at Yalta; refused to allow reunification of Germany• Churchill's "Iron Curtain" speech in 1946 alerted Americans to a future conflict

– U S wanted democracy spread throughout the world with a strong international organization to maintain global peace

• Soviet point of view:– Democracies traditionally hostile towards communism and the USSR

• e g , Archangel expedition during WWI; non-recognition by U S until 1933– US & Britain did not open western front in Europe early enough; millions of Soviet soldiers were dying

fighting the brunt of Nazi armies alone until mid-1944 – The US and Britain froze Russia out of the atomic bomb project – US terminated lend-lease to Moscow in May 1945 but gave Britain aid until 1946 – Wanted "buffer zone" for the Soviet western border esp in Poland

Cold War• Partition of Germany

– USSR, U S , Britain & France would each occupy a part of Germany but would allow for German reunification once she was no longer a threat

– Germany was to pay heavy reparations to USSR in form of agricultural and industrial goods

– Soviets dominated their Eastern German zone• Did not want revitalized Germany that could once again pose a threat • Stripped E Germany of much of its resources

– U S and W Europeans felt German economy vital to recovery of Europe

• 1949, West Germany became an independent country when US, France and Britain gave back each of their zones

– Federal Republic of Germany – led by Konrad Adenauer

– 1949, East Germany formally established – Democratic Republic of Germany led by Walter Ulbricht (1883-1973); communist regime influenced by Moscow

Containment"Containment": By 1947, US pledged to prevent further spread of communism• Truman Doctrine, 1947: U S gave aid to Greece and Turkey to defeat communist

forces there • Marshall Plan, 1947: Massive aid package to help war-torn Europe recover from the

war– Purpose: prevent communism from spreading into economically devastated regions– Result: Western and Central Europe recovered economically -- the "economic miracle"– Soviets refused to allow U S aid to countries in eastern Europe

• Berlin Crisis (1948-49): Soviets attempted to remove Allies from Berlin by cutting off access

– One of high tension points of the Cold War; World War III?– U S instituted a massive airlift; Soviets lifted blockade in 1949

• North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) formed in 1949– Collective security organization consisting of democracies in Europe, U S & Canada to

prevent against Soviet expansion in Europe • Radio Free Europe & Voice of America set up to send pro-democracy messages to

countries behind the "iron curtain"

Eastern BlocEastern Bloc: countries in Eastern Europe dominated by Soviet Union after WWII• Included Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Rumania, Bulgaria

– Communist parties of eastern Europe established one-party states by 1948, with help of Red Army and KGB (Soviet secret police)

– Only Yugoslavia, led by Marshal Tito, is not dominated by Soviets• Postwar economic recovery in eastern Europe proceeded along Soviet lines

– Changes went forward at slow & uneven pace; came to almost a halt by the mid-1960s – Five-year plans in USSR reintroduced to tackle massive economic reconstruction

• Stalin reinstitutes oppressive rule– Great Patriotic War of the Fatherland had fostered Russian nationalism and a relaxation of dictatorial terror – Stalin’s new foe, the U S , provided an excuse for re-establishing harsh dictatorship – After war, Stalin repressed millions of Soviet citizens living outside Soviet borders when the war ended – Stalin revived many forced labor camp, which had accounted for roughly 1/6 of all new construction in

Soviet Union before the war– Culture and art were also purged

• Czechoslovakia– Czechoslovakia the economic exception in E Europe: industrialized, strong middle class and industrial

working class and experience of political democracy between the wars – During “dualist period", President Benes and Foreign minister Jan Masaryk proposed to govern a social

democracy while maintaining close voluntary relations with the USSR – In response to Marshall Plan in 1947, Stalin replaced gov’t in 1948 with 1-party communist rule to prevent

nation from courting the West

USSR• USSR under Nikita Khrushchev (1894-1971)

– Power struggle emerged after Stalin died in 1953; Khrushchev emerged a few years later– Stalin’s heirs realized reforms were needed

• Widespread fear and hatred of Stalin’s political terror resulted in reduction of power of secret police and gradual closure of forced labor camps

• Agriculture in bad shape • Shortages of consumer goods • Hard work and initiative in decline due to poor living conditions

– de-Stalinization• XXth Party Congress, 1956: Khrushchev took startling initiative against hard-liners by denouncing Stalin’s crimes in a

closed session – Secret anti-Stalin speech probably most influential statement in Russia since Lenin addressed the crowd on arriving in April

1917

– Gosplan: Resources shifted from heavy industry and the military toward consumer goods and agriculture – Centralized Economic Planning

– Great ferment in the arts (anti-Stalinist views tolerated)• Boris Pasternak (1890-1960) wrote Dr Zhivago in 1956

– Story of prerevolutionary intellectual who rejects brutality of revolution of 1917 & Stalinism; even as he is destroyed, he triumphs from his humanity and Christian spirit

• Aleksandr Solzenitsyn: One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich (1962)– Portrays in grim detail life in Stalinist concentration camp (he had been a prisoner)

– De-Stalinization resulted in communist reformers and the masses seeking greater liberty and national independence

• Poland: March 1956, riots resulted in release of more than 9000 political prisoners, including previously purged leader Wladyslaw Gomulka

– Gomulka skillfully managed to win greater autonomy for Poland while keeping anti-Soviet feeling at bay • Hungarian Uprising, 1956• Students and workers in Budapest installed a liberal Communist reformer, Imre Nagy as new chief in October 1956

– Hungarian nationalists staged huge demonstrations demanding non-communist parties be legalized; turned into armed rebellion and spread throughout the country

» Hoped U S would come in and help achieve Hungarian independence– Soviet tanks and troops responded by invading Hungary and crushing the national democratic revolution – János Kádár installed firm communist rule– After Hungarian invasion, most eastern Europeans hoped for small domestic gains while obediently following USSR in foreign

affairs

Economic RecoveryPost-War Political and Economic Framework• Bretton Woods Conference (1944): created International Monetary Fund (IMF)

– Lay foundations for modern monetary system; based on U S dollar– IMF (World Bank) designed to loan money to struggling countries to prevent economic crises and anarchy; instrumental in post-war economic

boom • United Nations created in 1945: Security Council (12 nations including 5 permanent members had powers to act; General Assembly

had powers to advise (included all nations of the world)Western Europe political recovery• Economic hardship after WWII: scarcity of food, runaway inflation, black markets

– Many people believed Europe was finished – Suffering was worst in Germany

• Political restructuring– Christian Democrats inspired by common Christian and European heritage

• Rejected authoritarianism & narrow nationalism; had faith in democracy and cooperation • Catholic parties also progressive in nature

– Socialists and Communists also emerged with increased power and prestige, especially in France and Italy • Pushed for social change and economic reform with considerable success • Result: social reform and political transformation created foundations for a great European renaissance

• Italy: Christian Democrats gained control in 1946 led by Alcide De Gasperi – Socialist influence: social benefits came to equal a large part of the average worker’s wages

• France: – General Charles De Gaulle, inspiring wartime leader of Free French, re-established free and democratic Fourth Republic (resigned in 1949)– Catholic party provided some of best postwar leaders e g Robert Schuman– Socialist influence: large banks, insurance companies, public utilities, coal mines, and the Renault auto company were nationalized by gov’t – Britain followed same trend

• Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany): – 1949, Konrad Adenauer began long, highly successful democratic rule – Christian Democrats became West Germany’s majority party for a generation

• Great Britain:– Clement Attlee, socialist Labour party leader, defeated Winston Churchill and the Conservatives in 1945 – Attlee moved toward establishment of a “welfare state ”– Many industries nationalized, gov’t provided each citizen with free medical service and taxed the middle and upper classes more heavily

Economic Miracle“Economic Miracle”: unprecedented economic growth in European history• Europe entered period of rapid economic progress lasting into late 1960s

– By 1963, western Europe produced more than 2 5X more than before the war • Causes:

– Marshall Plan aid helped western Europe begin recovery in 1947– Korean War in 1950 stimulated economic activity – Economic growth became a basic objective of all western European governments

• Governments accepted Keynesian economics to stimulate their economies • Germany and France were especially successful and influential • In most countries many people willing to work hard for low wages; expanding industries benefited

– Increased demand for consumer goods – Many economic barriers eliminated and a large unified market emerged: Common Market

• German economic recovery led by finance minister Ludwig Erhard– Combined free-market economy & extensive social welfare network inherited from Nazi era – By late 1950s, West Germany had robust economy, full employment, a strong currency and stable prices

• France– Combined flexible planning and a “mixed” state and private economy to achieve most rapid economic

development in its history – Jean Monnet: economic pragmatist and architect of European unity – France used Marshall Plan aid money and the nationalized banks to funnel money into key industries,

several of which were state owned

European UnityEuropean Unity• Council of Europe created in 1948

– European federalists hoped Council would quickly evolve into a true European parliament with sovereign rights, but this did not happen – Britain, with its empire and its “special relationship” with U S , opposed giving any real political power—sovereignty—to the council

• Schuman Plan, 1950 created the European Coal and Steel Community– Put forth by French statesman Jean Monnet and Foreign Minister Robert Schuman – Special international organization to control & integrate European steel and coal production – West Germany, Italy, Belgium, Netherlands, & Luxembourg accepted in 1952

• Britain refused to enter– Immediate economic goal: a single competitive market w/o national tariffs or quotas – "The Six": By 1958 coal and steel moved freely among six nations of the European Coal and Steel Community – Far-reaching political goal: bind six member nations so closely together economically that war among them would become unthinkable and virtually

impossible European Economic Community (EEC)• Treaty of Rome, 1957

– Created European Economic Community (EEC) or the Common Market• Signed by same six nations in the Schuman Plan – “the Six”

– First goal of treaty: Gradual reduction of all tariffs among the Six in order to create a single market almost as large as the U S – Other goals:

• Free movement of capital and labor • Common economic policies and institutions • Tariffs were rapidly reduced and regions specialized in what they did best

• EEC encouraged hopes of political and economic union • Union frustrated in 1960s by resurgence of more traditional nationalism • Euratom (European Atomic Energy Agency) also created by agency • Communist states responded by forming their own economic association--COMECONFrance steps back from European unity• Bitter colonial war in Algeria resulted in the election in 1958 of General De Gaulle who established the Fifth French Republic and ruled as

president until 1969 • Withdrew France from "US controlled" NATO and developed own nuclear weapons program • De Gaulle twice vetoed application of pro-American British to European Union

– Britain did not inter until 1973

1950’sCold War in the 1950s• 1949, Communists in China led by Mao Zedong win Chinese revolution

– Establish "Peoples Republic of China" ("Red China")• 1949, Soviets successfully test atomic bomb• Korean War: 1950-1953

– After WWII, Korea divided at 38th parallel: north was communist, south was not– 1950, North Korea invaded South Korea (supported by Soviet resources)– UN (led by US & Gen Douglas MacArthur) sent forces to push back communists– Soviets boycotting UN for U S refusal to allow "Red China" into UN Security Council– China sends hundreds of thousands of troops to push back UN– Result: cease-fire and border at 38th parallel restored; still in existence today

• Hydrogen bomb developed by US in 1952 & USSR in 1953: world now has two superpowers• Warsaw Pact, 1955: Collective security organization of eastern bloc nations to counter NATO • U S policy of "massive retaliation" between 1953-55

– U S policy now is to help eastern European countries remove communism – U S vows to destroy USSR with nuclear weapons if it tries to expand– brinksmanship": the art of going to the brink of war to force the other side t back down

• Relations between USSR and U S improve with ascension to power of Nikita Khrushchev– Seeks “peaceful coexistence” with the West in order to focus on Soviet economy– Austrian Independence: USSR agreed in 1955 to real independence for a neutral Austria after 10 years of Allied occupation

• Resulted in significant reduction in cold war tensions between 1955 & 1957 – Krushchev sought to prove communism was superior to capitalism and the USSR would be the model communist state in the

world; "we will bury you ”• Krushchev began wooing new nations of Asia and Africa with promises and aid, even if they were not communist

– Geneva Summit -- 1955 (July)• US meets with USSR, Britain, & France to begin discussions on European security and disarmament; no agreements made

– Sputnik, 1957: (see below)– 1958, relations sour with Khrushchev's ultimatum for Allies to leave Berlin: 6 month deadline passes without incident, extended

indefinitely

1960’sCold War in 1960s• U-2 incident: U S spy plane shot down over USSR

– Khrushchev demanded an apology from Eisenhower; Eisenhower refused– Promising Paris Summit in 1960 between Khrushchev and Eisenhower aborted

• Berlin Wall built in 1961• 2 million East Germans escaped to West Berlin between 1949-1961; Soviets frustrated

– Khrushchev threatened President Kennedy: USSR would sign peace treaty with East Germany who would then control access to Berlin; Soviets would protect East Germany’s right to control flow into Berlin

– Berlin Wall built instead of enforcing ultimatum to U S ; ended future crises over Berlin• Cuba became a communist country in 1959 under leadership of Fidel Castro

– Cuba became an ally of the Soviet Union– Bay of Pigs Invasion, 1961: U S -trained Cuban exiles tried unsuccessfully to invade Cuba– Cuban Missile Crisis, 1962: U S demanded Soviets remove their newly installed nuclear missiles from Cuba

• Crisis became the closest USSR and US came to nuclear war• U S placed blockade (naval quarantine) on any further missiles into Cuba• Khrushchev agreed to remove missiles in return for U S removing its missiles from Turkey and vowing not to invade Cuba in the future • Crisis weakened Khrushchev and contributed to his downfall in 1964

– Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, 1963: • Khrushchev, Kennedy & Britain signed historic treaty banning atmospheric testing in an attempt to reduce Cold War tensions• France refused to sign (was in the process of developing own nuclear weapons program)

• China became a nuclear power in 1964 leading to its estrangement with Soviet Union• Fall of Khrushchev, 1964

– His cold war foreign policies erratic & ultimately unsuccessful (Berlin, Cuban Missile Crisis)– Expensive space and armaments programs postponed any significant shift to consumer goods – Most important reason: agricultural projects backfired– Resurgence of conservative Stalinists led to quiet removal of Khrushchev in October, 1964

• Leonid Brezhnev became new General Secretary (1964-1982)– Beginning in 1964, USSR began a period of stagnation and limited re-Stalinization– Massive arms buildup started in response to humiliation of Cuban Missile Crisis – USSR avoided direct confrontation with the U S and seemed more committed to peaceful coexistence than Khrushchev had been

• Vietnam War (1964-1973): U S fought unsuccessful war in Southeast Asia to prevent communism from spreading into South Vietnam

– “Domino Theory”: U S believed if Vietnam fell to communism, Laos, Cambodia and Thailand would also fall (perhaps even India) (1964-1973)

Society after WWIISOCIETY AFTER WORLD WAR IIScience and Technology• For first time in history, “pure theoretical” science and “practical” technology (”applied science”) effectively joined together on massive

scale during WWII – British scientists developed radar to detect enemy aircraft – Jet aircraft developed by Germany– Electronic computers further developed; had barely come into existence before 1939 – Manhattan Project: Atomic bomb most spectacular result of scientific research during the war; project overseen by J Robert Oppenheimer

• “Big Science” became new model for science after WWII– Combined theoretical work with sophisticated engineering in a large, often huge organization – U S emerged as leader in Big Science after WWII

• Science not demobilized after WWII either in U S or USSR• Large portion of all postwar scientific research went for “defense” (25%!)

• Space Race (part of Cold War competition to achieve technological superiority)– 1957, USSR launched Sputnik, an orbiting satellite using long-range rockets

• US fearful Soviets could now launch a nuclear missile into space and then down to U S • Resulted in development of ICBMs (Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles)

– U S countered with creation of NASA and vastly increased educational funding for science – 1961, Soviets sent world’s first cosmonaut, Yuri Gagarin, into orbit – President John F Kennedy responded by increasing funds for space – 1969, Apollo Program put first man on the moon; 4 more moon landings followed by 1972

• “Brain Drain”: U S attracted many of Europe’s best scientists during 1950s and 1960s—seen as the American Challenge– Some Europeans feared Europe was falling behind U S in science, technology, and most dynamic industrial sectors of the late 20th century – Yet, revitalized Europe pooling resources on Big Science projects:

• Concorde supersonic passenger airliner and peaceful uses of atomic energy • Massive growth of scientific community

– Four times as many scientists in Europe and North America in 1975 as in 1945 – Highly specialized modern scientists and technologists worked as members of a team, which completely changed work and lifestyle of modern

scientists – James Watson and Francis Crick win Nobel Prize in 1962 for discovering structure of DNA

Society after WWIIChange in class structure and social reform• Rise of the middle-class largely result of increased access to higher education

– European society became more mobile and democratic • New middle-class, based largely on specialized skills and high levels of education, more open, democratic, and insecure than old propertied middle class

– Changes in structure of middle class influential in trend toward less rigid class structure – Causes for change in rise of middle class

• Rapid industrial and technological expansion created in large corporations and gov’t agencies became powerful demand for technologists and managers • Old propertied middle class lost control of many family-owned businesses • Top managers and ranking civil servants represented model for new middle class of salaried specialists; well paid and highly trained

– Passed on opportunity for advanced education to their children • Structure of lower classes also became more flexible and open

– Mass exodus from farms and countryside • Resulted in drastic decline in one of Europe’s most traditional and least mobile groups

– Industrial working class ceased to expand while job opportunities for white-collar and service employees grew rapidly • European governments reduced class tensions by further expanding social security reforms: health care, family allowances, maternity

grants, public housing • Consumerism worked to level Western society

– Sparked by rising standard of living giving more people disposable income – European automobile industry expanded phenomenally – “Gadget revolution”

• Like US, Europeans bought washing machines, vacuum cleaners, refrigerators, dishwashers, radios, TVs, and stereos • Purchasing greatly facilitated by installment purchasing

– Increased social welfare resulted in more disposable income and less need to save for old age – Leisure and recreation became big business as workers worked fewer hours

• Soccer matches, horse races, movies, TV, commercialized hobbies• Increased attendance in cultural events: concerts and exhibitions • Travel industry mushroomed most dramatically

– Before WWII travel for pleasure or relaxation largely aristocratic – Paid vacations required by law in most countries

Counterculture• The youth movement and Counterculture• Counter-Culture: rebellion against parents, authority figures and status quo

– Baby boom after WWII developed distinctive and international youth culture • Many raised in economic prosperity and more democratic class structure • New generation influenced by revival of leftist thought created a “counter-culture”

– Youth in America took the lead • Some youth rebelled against conformity and boredom of middle-class suburbs

– Rock music helped tie counter-culture together• Beatles, British rock band, became one of biggest pop groups in music history• Increased sexual behavior among many young people during 1960s and 1970s

– Age of first sexual experienced reduced significantly – Growing tendency of young unmarried people to live together on a semi permanent basis with little thought of

getting married or having children

• Causes of the emergence of international youth culture in 1960s – Mass communication and youth travel linked countries and continents together – Baby boom meant youth became unusually large part of population and exercised

exceptional influence on society as a whole – Postwar prosperity and greater equality gave youth more purchasing power than ever before

• Youth to set mass trends and fads in everything from music to chemical stimulants – Common patterns of consumption and behavior fostered generational loyalty – Good jobs were readily available

• High demand for workers meant youth had little need to fear punishment from straight-laced employers for unconventional behavior

Student RevoltsStudent Revolts in the late 1960s• Causes

– Opposition to U S war in Vietnam triggered revolutionary ferment among youths• Influenced by Marxist current in French universities after 1945 & new left thinking in US• Believed older generation & US fighting immoral & imperialistic war against Vietnam

– Students in western Europe shared US youth's rejection of materialism and belief that postwar society was repressive and flawed – Problems in higher education: classes overcrowded; little contact with professors; competition for grades intense; demanded even

more practical areas of study to qualify for high-paying jobs after college– Some students warned of dangers of narrowly trained experts ("technocrats") who would serve the establishment to the detriment

of • French student revolt, 1968

– Students took over the university, leading to violent clashes with police • Most students demanded changes in curriculum and real voice in running the university

– Appealed to industrial workers for help; spontaneous general strike spread across France• To many it seemed the French Fifth Republic might collapse

– De Gaulle called in troops and called for new elections (which he won decisively)• The mini-Revolution collapsed

– For much of the older generation in western Europe, the student revolution of 1968 signaled the end of illusions and end of an era • Czechoslovakia

– Due to Khrushchev’s reforms in USSR, 1960s brought modest liberalization and more consumer goods to eastern Europe– 1968, reform elements in Czechoslovak Communist party gained a majority and voted out long-time Stalinist leader – Alexander Dubcek elected leader: ushered new period of thaw and rebirth in famous “Prague Spring” of 1968

• Czech reformers building “socialism with a human face” frightened hard-line communists – Soviet troops brutally invaded Czechoslovakia in August 1968 – Czechoslovakia became one of most hard-line communist regimes well into 1980s – Brezhnev Doctrine: Soviet Union and its allies had right to intervene in any socialist country whenever they saw the need

De-ColonizationDe-Colonization after WWII• Postwar era saw total collapse of colonial empires

– Between 1947 and 1962, almost every colonial territory gained independence – New nations of Asia and Africa deeply influenced by Western ideas and achievements

• Causes– Modern nationalism and belief in self-determination and racial equality, spread from intellectuals to the masses in virtually every

colonial territory after WWI – Decline of European prestige: Japanese victories; destruction of Europe during WWII– After 1945, European powers more concerned about rebuilding; let colonies go

• India played a key role in decolonization and the end of empire – Indian National Congress: British had no choice but to develop a native political elite that could assist in ruling such huge

country • Exposure of young Indians to Western ideas of nationalism, socialism, and democracy led to demands for independence by the early

20th century – Mohandas K Gandhi: after WWI led independence movement with principle of passive resistance (civil disobedience)– Jawaharlal Nehru led Congress party in its push for independence– Clement Attlee and others in Labour party wished to focus on internal affairs – Lord Louis Mountbatten: appointed to supervise transition of India to independence

• Divided India into two nations: India (Hindu) and Pakistan (Muslim)

• China– After WWII (defeat of Japanese invaders) a civil war broke out between communists led by Mao Zedong and Nationalists led by

Jiang Jieshi (Chang kai-shek)– Mao won the revolution and created a communist country: People's Republic of China

• Vietnam– After Japanese removed after WWII, French tried to reassert control of Indochina– Ho Chi Minh led the independence movement in the north– 1954, defeated French forces at Dien Bien Phu– 1954,Vietnam was divided into North (communist) and South (pro-Western); civil war resulted– U S defeated in attempt to prevent communist takeover of South Vietnam; Vietnam unified in 1975

De-ColonizationArab Nationalism• Arab nationalists loosely united by opposition to colonialism and migration of Jews to Palestine• Israel and Palestine

– Balfour Declaration in 1917 indicated Britain favored creation of Jewish “national home” in Palestine—opposed by Saudi Arabia & Transjordan

– Great Britain announced its withdrawal from Palestine in 1948 – United Nations voted for creation of two states, one Arab and one Jewish– Palestinians vowed to fight on until state of Israel destroyed or until they established own independent Palestinian state; led to several wars

and numerous conflicts in late 20th century• Egypt

– Arab defeat in 1948 by Israel triggered nationalist revolution in Egypt in 1952 – 1956, Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal, the last symbol and substance of Western power in the Middle

East – France, Britain and Israel attacked Egypt, trying to take back control of Suez Canal– U S and Soviet Union demanded their withdrawal and the canal remained in Egypt's control

• Algerian Crisis (mid 1950s)– Algeria’s large French population considered Algeria an integral part of France

• This feeling led ensuing war; bitter and atypical of decolonization – General De Gaulle, who had returned to power as part of movement to keep Algeria French, accepted principle of Algerian self-determination – 1962, after more than a century of French rule, Algeria became independent and the European population quickly fled – Crisis led to fall of the Fourth Republic and beginning of the Fifth Republic

• Sub-Saharan Africa– Decolonization proceeded much more smoothly than in northern Africa– British Commonwealth of Nations: beginning in 1957, Britain’s colonies achieved independence with little or no bloodshed; entered a very

loose association with Britain • Exception: Mao Mao society were a Kenyan group of terrorists/freedom fighters who fought to end English control of Kenya

– 1958, De Gaulle offered leaders of French black Africa choice of total break with France or immediate independence within a kind of French commonwealth

• All but one of new states chose association with France – Cultural imperialism continued

• France and Common Market partners saw themselves as continuing their civilizing mission in black Africa • Desired untapped markets for industrial goods, raw materials, outlets for profitable investment, and good temporary jobs for their engineers and teachers