The Cold War Begins, 1945-1952mrglider.weebly.com/uploads/1/0/9/3/109362371/ch... · VI. Cold War Deepens (cont.) • Marshall Plan a spectacular success: • U.S. dollars assisted

Chapter35

TheColdWarBegins,1945-1952

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I.Truman:The“Gutty”ManfromMissouri

• “Accidentalpresident”HarrySTrumanpresidedoverinitialpostwarperiod

• Called“averageman'saverageman”• Firstpresidentinmanyyearswithoutacollegeeducation• Hadfarmed,servedasartilleryofficerinFranceduringWWI,andfailedashaberdasher• MovedintoMissouripolitics,rosefromjudgeshiptoU.S.Senate• ThoughprotégéofnotoriouspoliticalmachineinKansasCity,hemanagedtokeephisownhandsclean

I.Truman:The“Gutty”ManfromMissouri(cont.)

– Startedpresidencywithhumility,butgainedconfidencetopointofcockiness:• Gatheredoldassociatesof“Missourigang”aroundhimandwasstubbornlyloyaltothem• Couldbeimpulsiveandstubborn• Cynicsjibed,“ToerrisTruman”• Down-homeauthenticity• Fewpretensions;rock-solidprobity• Alotofold-fashionedcharactertraitcalledmoxie

II.Yalta:BargainorBetrayal?

• Yaltaconference(February1945):– FinalfatefulconferenceofBigThree,atformertsaristresortonBlackSea

– Stalin,Churchillandfast-failingRoosevelt– Momentousagreementsandplans:• FinalplanstosmashbucklingGermanlines• AssignedoccupationzonesinGermany• StalinagreedPoland,withrevisedboundaries,shouldhaverepresentativegovernmentbasedonfreeelections

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II.Yalta:BargainorBetrayal? (cont.)

• BulgariaandRomaniatohavefreeelections—anotherpromiseflouted• BigThreeannouncedplansforfashioningnewinternationalpeacekeepingorganization—UnitedNations• ControversialdecisionsonFarEast:

– Lackingatestedatomicbomb,FDRwantedUSSRtoenterAsianwartopindownJapanesetroopsinManchuriaandKorea» WouldlessenU.S.lossesifhadtoinvadeJapan

– StalinagreedtodosothreemonthsafterGermanydefeated,– Inreturn,FDRagreedforUSSRtoreceive:

» SouthernhalfofSakhalinIslandandJapan'sKurileisland» ControlofrailroadsandtwokeyseaportsinChina'sManchuria

II.Yalta:BargainorBetrayal (cont.)

• WhenitturnedoutUSSRnotneededtodefeatJapan,Roosevelt'scriticscharged:– HesoldJiangJieshi(ChiangKai-shek)downriverbyconcedingcontrolofManchuriatoStalin

– Alsoassailed“sell-out”ofPolandandotherEasternEuropeancountries

• Roosevelt'sdefenders:– Stalin,withhisredarmy,couldhavetakenmoreofChina

» SoYaltaactuallysetlimitsonhisambitions– AttimeofYalta,SoviettroopsoccupiedEastEurope,andawartoejectthemunthinkable

II.Yalta:BargainorBetrayal (cont.)

• BigThreenotdraftingcomprehensivepeacesettlement:– Sketchedgeneralintentionsandtestedoneanother'sreactions

– Morespecificunderstandingsamongwartimealliesawaitedarrivalofpeace

III.TheUnitedStatesandtheSovietUnion

– LittlehopeUSAandUSSRcouldreachcordialunderstandingonpostwarworld:• Communismandcapitalismhistoricallyhostilesocialphilosophies:– USAdidnotofficiallyrecognizeUSSRuntil1933– SovietskepticismnourishedbylongdelaysofAmericansandBritishtoopensecondfrontagainstGermany

– BritainandAmericafrozeSoviet“ally”outofprojecttodevelopatomicweapons

– Washingtonabruptlyterminatedlend-leaseaidtoUSSRin1945andthenspurnedSovietpleaforreconstructionloanwhileapprovingaloanforEngland

III.TheUnitedStatesandtheSovietUnion(cont.)

– Differentvisionsofpostwarworldseparatedtwo:• StalinaimedtoguaranteesecurityofSovietUnion

– Twicein1900s,RussiaattackedthroughPoland– BymaintainingSovietsphereofinfluenceinEasternandCentralEurope,USSRcouldprotectitselfaswellasconsolidaterevolutionarybaseasworld'sleadingcommunistcountry

• ManyAmericanssaw“sphereofinfluence”asill-gained“empire”– DoubtedSovietgoalspurelydefensive– “Sphereofinfluence”clashedwithRoosevelt'sandWilson's“openworld”—decolonized,demilitarized,democratizedwithstronginternationalorganizationforglobalpeace

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• BothisolatedfromworldaffairsbeforeWWII– UnitedStatesthroughchoice– SovietUnionthroughrejectionbyotherpowers

• Bothhad“missionary”diplomacy—tryingtoexporttheirpoliticaldoctrines

• Someconfrontationunavoidablebetween– Communistic,despoticRussia– Capitalistic,democraticAmerica


• “GrandAlliance”onlyachildofnecessity• Inprogressionofevents,suspicionandrivalry– Grewbecauseofmisperceptionsandgenuineconflictofinterestsbetweentwosuperpowers

• ColdWar:• Tensestandofflastedfourandahalfdecades• ShapedSoviet-Americanrelations• Overshadowedpostwarinternationalorderineverycornerofglobe

IV.ShapingthePostwarWorld• USAerectedstructuresformoreopenworldenvisionedbyRoosevelt

• 1941AtlanticCharterproclaimedrightsof– Self-determination– Freetrade– “Freedomfromfearandwant”forallindividuals– (SeeThinkingGloballyinChap39)

IV.ShapingthePostwarWorld(cont.)

• BrettonWoodsConference(1944):–Westernalliesestablished• InternationalMonetaryFund(IMF)toencourageworldtradebyregulatingcurrencyexchangerates• InternationalBankforReconstructionandDevelopment(WorldBank)toaideconomicgrowthinwar-ravagedandunderdevelopedareas– Threeyearslater,GATTbeganglobalreductionintradebarriers

• USAtookleadincreatingthesebodiesandsuppliedmuchoftheirfunding• Sovietsdeclinedtoparticipate

IV.ShapingthePostwarWorld (cont.)

• U.N.ConferenceopenedonApril25,1945:• Rooseveltshrewdlymovedtoestablishnewinternationalbodybeforewar'sconclusion• MeetinginSanFrancisco,representativesfromfiftynationsfashionedUnitedNationsCharter• USAtooklead,butUSSRparticipated

– UnitedNations(U.N.):• SuccessortoLeagueofNations• Differedinmanyways:

– Leagueadoptedrulesdenyingvetotoanypartytoadispute


– U.N.providedthatnomemberofSecurityCouncil,dominatedbyBigFive(USA,Britain,France,USSR,andChina),couldhaveactiontakenagainstitwithoutitsconsent

– U.N.GeneralAssemblycouldbecontrolledbysmallercountries

– IncontrasttoAmericanreceptionofLeaguein1919,SenateapprovedU.N.CharteronJuly28,1945,byvoteof89to2


• U.N.,headquarteredinNewYorkCity,hadsomeinitialsuccesses:

• HelpedpreservepeaceinIran,Kashmir,andothertroublespots• PlayedlargeroleincreatingnewJewishstateofIsrael• U.N.TrusteeshipCouncilguidedformercoloniestoindependence• UNESCO,FAO,andWHObroughtbenefitstopeoplesacrossglobe


• Newatomictechnologytestedspiritofcooperation,andU.N.failedbadly:

• USAproposedseparateagencytohaveworld-wideauthorityoveratomicenergy,weapons,andresearch• SovietUnionrespondedwithcallfortotaloutlawingofnuclearweaponsbyeverynation,butUSArefused• SovietUnionusedvetotoscuttleproposalsatU.N.• Opportunitytotamenuclearmonsterlost

V.TheProblemofGermany

• Hitler'sruinedReichhadcreatedproblemsforallwartimeAllies:

• AgreedNazismhadtobecutoutofGermanpolitics• InvolvedpunishingNazileadersforwarcrimes• Nurembergwarcrimestrial1945-1946:

– Tried22topculprits– Accusationsincluded

» Crimesagainstlawsofwarandhumanity» Aggressioncontrarytosolemntreatypledges

– Justice,Nuremberg-style,harsh– 12accusedNazisexecuted

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V.TheProblemofGermany(cont.)

» Sevensentencedtolongjailterms» “FoxyHermann”Goeringescapedhangmanbyswallowinghiddencyanidecapsule

» Othertrialscontinuedforyears– Criticscondemnedtrialsasjudiciallynching:

» Becausevictimstriedforoffensesthathadnotbeenclearcutcrimeswhenwarbegan

• BeyondpunishingtopNazis,AlliescouldagreeonlittleaboutpostwarGermany– SomeAmericanHitler-haterswantedtodismantleGermanfactoriesandreducecountrytopotatopatch

– Soviets,deniedU.S.economicassistance,determinedtorebuildbyextractingreparationsfromGermans

V.TheProblemofGermany(cont.)

– BothclashedwithrealitythathealthyGermanyindustrialeconomyindispensabletoEuropeanrecovery

– Germanydividedintofourmilitaryoccupationzones:» EachoneassignedtooneofBigFourpowers(France,Britain,America,andUSSR)(seeMap35.1)

• WesternAllies:– RefusedtoallowMoscowtobleedtheirzonesofthereparationsStalininsistedhehadbeenpromisedatYalta

– BegantopromoteideaofreunitedGermany

Map 35-1 p825

V.TheProblemsofGermany(cont.)

– CommunistsrespondedbytighteninggriponEasternzone– SoonapparentGermanywouldremaindivided:

» WestGermanybecameindependentcountry,weddedtoWest» EastGermany,alongwithotherSoviet-dominatedEasternEuropeancountriesbecamenominallyindependent“satellite”statesboundtoSovietUnion

» EasternEuropevirtuallydisappearedfromWesternsightbehind“ironcurtain”ofsecrecyandisolation

» DivisionofEuropewouldlastsomefourdecades


• WhataboutBerlin?– DeepwithinSovietzone– Dividedintosectorsoccupiedbytroopsofeachoffourvictoriouspowers

– In1948,aftercontroversiesover:• Germancurrencyreformandfour-powercontrol• SovietsabruptlyclosedrailandhighwayaccesstoBerlin

– Berlinhugesymbolicissueforbothsides


• AmericansorganizedgiganticBerlinairlift:– U.S.pilotsferriedthousandsoftonsofsuppliesadaytogratefulBerliners

–WesternEuropetookheartfromdemonstratedAmericancommitmentinEurope

– SovietsliftedblockadeinMay1949– Sameyear,twoGermanys,EastandWest,established

– ColdWarcongealed

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VI.ColdWarDeepens

• Stalin,seekingoilconcessions,brokeagreementtoremovetroopsfromnorthIran– Stalineventuallybackeddown

• Moscow'shard-linepoliciesinGermany,EasternEurope,andMiddleEastwroughtpsychologicalPearlHarbor– AmericansupsetbyKremlin'sunwillingnesstocontinuewartimepartnership

– Attitudesonbothsideshardened

VI.ColdWarDeepens(cont.)

• Truman'sresponsetoSovietchallenges:– Containmentdoctrine:• CraftedbyGeorgeF.Kennanin1947• HeldthatRussia,whethertsaristorcommunist,relentlesslyexpansionist• ArguedflowofSovietpowercouldbecontainedby“firmandvigilantcontainment”

– TrumanDoctrine:• TrumanembracedKennan's“get-tough-withRussia”intellectualframework


• WentbeforeCongressonMarch12,1947• Askedfor$400milliontobolsterGreeceandTurkey

– Supportforthoseresisting“Communistaggression”• Congressgrantedmoneyandthussupportforopen-endedcommitmentofvastproportions• ExaggeratingSovietthreat,Trumanpitchedmessageinchargedlanguageofholyglobalwaragainstgodlesscommunismtoovercomeanyrevivedisolationism

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• Threatsinwar-ravagedWesternEurope:– EspeciallyFrance,Italy,andGermany• DangerofbeingtakenoverfrominsidebyCommunistparties• OnJune5,1947,SecretaryofStateGeorgeMarshallinvitedEuropeanstogettogetherandworkoutjointplanforeconomicrecovery– Iftheydid,USAwouldprovidesubstantialfinancialassistance– ThiscooperationeventuallyledtocreationofEuropeanCommunity(EC)


• MarshallPlan:• MetinParisinJuly1947tothrashoutdetails• MarshallofferedsameaidtoUSSRanditsallies,butundertermsUSSRcouldnotaccept• Calledforspending$12.5billionoverfouryearsin16cooperatingcountries(seeMap35.2)• Congressatfirstbalkedatmammothsum• Lookedhugewhenaddedto$2billionalreadyprovidedforEuropeanrelief• AsColdWartensionsescalated,CongressvotedinitialappropriationsinApril1948

Map 35-2 p828


• MarshallPlanaspectacularsuccess:• U.S.dollarsassistedanemicWesternEuropeannations• “Economicmiracle”drenchedEuropeinprosperity• CommunistpartiesinItalyandFrancelostground

– Twocountriessavedfromcommunism

– TrumanonMay14,1948officiallyrecognizedstateofIsraelondayofitsbirth• Antagonizedoil-richArabswhoopposedsuchastateinBritishmandateterritoryofPalestine• DecisiongreatlycomplicatedUSA-Arabrelations

VII.AmericaBeginstoRearm

• Sovietmenaceresultedincreationofhugenewnationalsecurityapparatus– NationalSecurityAct1947:• CreatedDepartmentofDefense• Headedbynewcabinetoffice,secretaryofdefense• Underthesecretary,wereciviliansecretariesofthenavy,thearmy,andtheairforce• UniformedheadsofeachservicebroughttogetherasJointChiefsofStaff

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VII.AmericaBeginstoReform(cont.)

– EstablishedNationalSecurityCouncil(NSC)toadvisepresidentonsecuritymattersand

– CentralIntelligencesAgency(CIA)tocoordinategovernment'sforeignfactgathering

– Congress:• Authorized“VoiceofAmerica”(1948)tobeamAmericanradiobroadcastsbehindironcurtain• Resurrectedmilitarydraft:conscriptionofselectedyoungmenfrom19to25– SelectiveServiceSystemshapedmillionsofyoungpeople'seducational,marital,andcareerplans


• USAdecidedtojoindefensiveEuropeanPact—NorthAtlanticTreatyOrganization(NATO):

• TobolstercontainmentandhelpreintegrateGermany• TreatysignedinWashingtononApril4,1949• Twelveoriginalsignatoriespledgedto

– Regardanattackononeasanattackonall– Respondwith“armedforce”ifnecessary

• SenateapprovedtreatyinJulybyvoteof82to13• Membershipboostedto14in1952whenGreecejoinedandto15in1955byadditionofWestGermany


• NATOpactepochal:• DramaticdeparturefromAmericandiplomaticconvention• GiganticboostforEuropeanunification• SignificantstepinmilitarizationofColdWar• NATObecamecornerstoneofallColdWarAmericanpoliciestowardEurope• PunditssummedupNATO'sthree-foldpurpose:

– “TokeeptheRussiansout,theGermansdown,andtheAmericansin”

VIII.ReconstructionandRevolutioninAsia

• ReconstructioninJapan:– SimplerthanGermanybecauseaone-manshow• MacArthurledprogramfordemocratizationofJapan• Top“warcriminals”triedinTokyofrom1946to1948

– 18sentencedtoprisonterms;7hanged• MacArthursuccessfulandJapanesecooperatedtoanastonishingdegree– MacArthur-dictatedconstitutionadoptedin1946:

» Renouncedmilitarism;providedforwomen'sequality» IntroducedWestern-styledemocraticgovernment» PavedwayforJapan'sphenomenaleconomicrecovery

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VIII.ReconstructionandRevolutioninAsia(cont.)

• ReconstructioninChina– OppositeofJapan:• BittercivilwarragedbetweenNationalistsvs.communists• WashingtonhalfheartedlysupportedNationalistgovernmentofGeneralissimoJiangJieshi• CommunistsledbyMaoZedong(MaoTse-tung)• CorruptionandineptitudeinJiang'sregimeerodedpopularconfidenceinhisgovernment• CommunistarmiesforcedJiangin1949tofleetoislandofFormosa(Taiwan)


– CollapseofNationalistChinaamajordefeatforAmericaanditsalliesinColdWar—worsttodate:• Nearly¼ofworld'spopulation—some500million—sweptintocommunistcamp• “FallofChina”becamebitterlypartisanissueinUSA

– RepublicansassailedTrumanforhaving“lostChina”– ClaimedDemocratshaddeliberatelywithheldaidfromJiang

• Morebadnews:– Sept.1949:TrumanannouncedSovietshadexplodedanatomicbomb


– TooutpaceSovietsinnuclearweaponry,TrumanordereddevelopmentofHydrogenbomb• “H-bomb”muchmorepowerfulthanatomicbomb• J.RobertOppenheimerledgroupofscientistsinoppositiontodevelopmentofthermonuclearweapons• AlbertEinsteindeclared,“annihilationofanylifeonearthhasbeenbroughtwithintherangeoftechnicalpossibilities”


• UnitedStatesexploredfirsthydrogendevicein1952• SovietscounteredwiththeirfirstH-bombexplosionin1953• Nucleararmsraceenteredperilouslycompetitivecycle

– OnlyconstrainedbyrecognitionthattrulyhotColdWarwoulddestroyworld

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IX.TheKoreanVolcanoErupts

• NewshootingphasetoColdWar:June1950informerJapanesecolony– AfterWWII,SoviettroopsacceptedJapan'ssurrendernorthofthirty-eighthparallel

– Americantroopsdidsosouthof38thparallel– BothsuperpowersprofessedtowantreunificationandindependenceofKorea• AsinGermany,eachsidehelpedsetuprivalregimesaboveandbelowparallel

IX.TheKoreanVolcanoErupts(cont.)

– By1949,bothsideshadwithdrawnforces:• Leftabristlingarmedcamp• Twohostileregimeseyedeachothersuspiciously

– ExplosioncameonJune25,1950• SpearheadedbySoviet-madetanks,NorthKoreanarmyrumbledacross38thparallel• SouthKoreanforcespushedtoPusaninsouth

– Trumanviewedincidentthrough“containmentdoctrine”thatanyrelaxationinAmerica'sguardwouldinvitecommunistaggression

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Figure 35-1 p833

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• PromptedmassiveexpansionofU.S.military– NationalSecurityCouncilMemorandumNumber68(NSC-68):• RecommendedUSAquadrupledefensespending• Trumanorderedmassivebuildup,wellbeyondwhatwasnecessaryforKorea:– U.S.had3.5millionmenunderarms– Spent$50billionperyearondefensebudget—some13%ofGNP


– NSC-68keydocumentofColdWarperiod:• MarkedmajorstepinmilitarizationofAmericanforeignpolicy• ReflectedsenseofalmostlimitlesspossibilitythatpervadedpostwarAmericansociety• RestedonassumptionthatenormousAmericaneconomycouldbearwithoutstrainhugecostsofgiganticrearmamentprogram• SaidoneNSC-68planner:“Thereispracticallynothingthecountrycouldnotdoifitwantedtodoit”


• TrumanandUnitedNations:– OnJune25,1950,obtainedunanimouscondemnationofNorthKoreaasaggressor:• SecurityCouncilcalledallU.N.members,includingUSA,to“renderassistance”torestorepeace• Twodayslater,TrumanorderedAmericanairandnavalunitstosupportSouthKorea• OrderedGeneralMacArthur'sJapan-basedtroopsintoactionalongsidebeleagueredSouthKoreans• Sobeganill-fatedKoreanWar


• UnitedStates'role:– SimplyparticipatinginU.N.“policeaction”– Infact,UnitedStatesprovided88%ofU.N.contingents

– MacArthur,appointedU.N.commanderofentireoperation:• TookordersfromWashington,notfromSecurityCouncil

X.TheMilitarySeesawinKorea– MacArthurlandedbehindenemy'slineatInchononSeptember15,1950:• Succeededbrilliantly• NorthKoreansscrambledbackbehind“sanctuary”ofthirty-eighthparallel• U.N.AssemblytacitlyauthorizedcrossingbyMacArthur• TrumanorderedMacArthurnorthwardaslongasnoarmedinterventionbyChineseorSoviets(seeMap35.3)

– AmericansraisedstakesinKorea:• BroughtChinaintodangerousgame

Map 35-3 p834

X.TheMilitarySeesawinKorea(cont.)

• Chineseinvolvement:–WouldnotsitbyandwatchhostiletroopsapproachboundarybetweenKoreaandChina

– MacArthurboastedhewould“havetheboyshomebyChristmas”• InNov.1950,tensofthousandsofChinese“volunteers”felluponhisrashlyoverextendedline– HurledU.N.forcesbackdownpeninsula

• Warbecamestalematenearthirty-eighthparallel

X.TheMilitarySeesawinKorea(cont.)

• MacArthurpressedfordrasticretaliation,whileWashingtonrefusedtoenlargealreadycostlyconflict:– Europe,notAsia,wasadministration'sfirstconcern– USSR,notChina,loomedasmoresinisterfoe

• MacArthursneeredatconceptof“limitedwar”– Trumanbravelyresistedcallsfornuclearescalation– WhenMacArthurcriticizedpresident'spoliciespublicly,TrumanhadnochoicebuttoremoveinsubordinateMacArthurfromcommandonApril11,1951

– ManyAmericanscriticizedTruman'sdecision– ReflectedpopularpassionsofColdWarathome

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XI.TheColdWarHomeFront

• ColdWardeeplyshapedpoliticalandeconomicdevelopmentsathomeafterWWII

• Newanti-redchaseacceleratedbyfearsofcommunistspiesinUSA:

• In1947,Trumanlaunchedmassive“loyalty”program:– Attorneygeneraldrewuplistof90supposedlydisloyalorganizations

– LoyaltyReviewBoardinvestigatedmorethanthreemillionfederalemployees

– Some3,000ofwhomeitherresignedorweredismissed,noneunderformalindictment

XI.TheColdWarHomeFront(cont.)

• Individualstatesbecameinvolved• Loyaltyoathsdemandedofemployees,especiallyteachers

• 1949:11communistsbroughtbeforeNewYorkjuryforviolatingSmithActof1940:– Firstpeacetimeanti-seditionlawsince1798– ConvictedofadvocatingoverthrowofAmericangovernmentbyforce,defendantssenttoprison– SupremeCourtupheldconvictionsinDennisv.UnitedStates(1951)


• HouseofRepresentativesin1938establishedHouseUn-AmericanActivitiesCommittee– (HUAC)toinvestigate“subversion”• In1948,RichardM.Nixon,ambitiouscommitteemember,ledchaseafterAlgerHiss:– Prominentex-NewDealer– Distinguishedmemberof“easternestablishment”– Accusedofbeingacommunistagentin1930s– Hissdemandedrighttodefendhimself– DramaticallymetchiefaccuserbeforeHUACinAugust1948– Hissdeniedeverythingbutwascaughtinfalsehoods

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– Convictedofperjuryin1950;sentencedto5yearsinprison

– JuliusandEthelRosenberg:• Allegedly“leaked”atomicdatatoMoscow• Convictedin1951ofespionage• Wenttoelectricchairin1953

– OnlypeopleinAmericanhistoryeverexecutedinpeacetimeforespionage

• Sensationaltrialandelectrocution,combinedwithsympathyfortwoorphanedchildren,begantosoursomecitizensonexcessesofred-hunters


–WasAmericareallyriddledwithSovietspies?• Sovietagentsdidinfiltratesomegovernmentagencies,thoughwithoutseverelydamagingconsequences

– Someconservativesusedredbrushtotaranyoneinvolvedinsocialchangeas“subversive”

– Redhuntturnedintoawitchhunt:• 1950:TrumanvetoedMcCarranInternalSecurityBill:

– Authorizedpresidenttoarrestanddetainsuspiciouspeopleduring“internalsecurityemergency”

– Critics:billsmackedofpolice-statetactics– CongressenactedbilloverTruman'sveto

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• SenatorJosephR.McCarthy:mostdangerouspractitionerofdemagogicanticommunism

• February1950:accusedSecretaryofStateDeanAchesonofknowinglyemploying205Communists– McCarthyneveridentifiedasingleactualcommunist

• HisRepublicancolleaguesencouragedhimtoattack• Hisrhetoricgrewbolderasdidhisaccusations• HesawredhandofMoscoweverywhere• McCarthyismflourishedinseethingColdWaratmosphereofsuspicionandfear


• McCarthymostruthlessred-hunteranddidmostdamagetoAmericantraditionsoffairplayandfreespeech

• Careersofcountlessofficials,writers,andactorsruinedby“Low-BlowJoe”

• Politicianstrembledinfaceofsuchattacks• Atpeakofhispower,McCarthycontrolledpersonnelpolicyinStateDepartment– Resultedinseveredamagetomoraleandeffectivenessofprofessionalforeignservice

– DeprivedgovernmentofanumberofAsianspecialists– DamagedAmerica'sinternationalreputationforfairandopendemocracy


–WenttoofarwhenheattackedU.S.Army• Militaryfoughtbackin35daysoftelevisedhearings(spring1954)inArmy-McCarthyhearings:– Upto20millionwatchedhearings– McCarthypubliclycuthisownthroatbyparadinghisessentialmeannessandirresponsibility

• Senateformallycondemnedhimfor“conductunbecomingamember”• ThreeyearslaterMcCarthydiedofchronicalcoholism• “McCarthyism”alabelfordangerousforcesofunfairness/fear,unleashedbydemocraticsociety


– ColdWarshapedAmericanculture• ManyinterpretedconflictbetweencapitalistWestandcommunistEastinreligiousterms

– TheologianReinholdNiebuhrcastColdWarasabattlebetweengoodandevil• Dividedworldintotwocamps:“childrenoflight”vs.“childrenofdarkness”

– Religiousbeliefofanykindbecamedistinguishingfeatureof“AmericanWay”• Congressin1954insertedwords“underGod”intoPledgeofAllegiance


– Radicalvoicesmuzzled– Evenmoderatecivilrightsactivistsslanderedascommunistsorfellowtravelers

– ColdWaralsocreatedpressureonUSAtoliveuptoitsdemocraticideals

– CreatednewopportunitiesforcivilrightsactiviststopressUSAoncivilrightsclaims• SeeTruman'slandmarkExecutiveOrder9981,desegregatingArmedForces(1948)

XII.PostwarEconomicAnxieties

• Decadeof1930shadleftdeepscars:• Joblessnessandinsecuritypushedupsuiciderateanddampenedmarriagerate– Babieswentunborn—pinchedbudgetsandsaggingself-esteemwroughtasexualdepression

• Warbanishedblightofdepression• Afalteringeconomythreatenedtoconfirmworstpredictionsofdoomsayers:– WhoforesawanotherGreatDepression

• Grossnationalproduct(GNP)slumpedin1946-47• Epidemicofstrikessweptcountry

XII.PostwarEconomicAnxieties(cont.)

– Growthoforganizedlaborannoyedconservatives• CongresspassedTaft-HartleyAct(1947)overTruman'sveto– Outlawed“closed”(all-union)shop– Madeunionsliablefordamagesthatresultedfromjurisdictionaldisputesamongthemselves

– Requiredunionleaderstotakeanoncommunistoath• CIO'sOperationDixie:

– Aimedatunionizingsoutherntextileworkersandsteelworkers– Failedbecausewhiteworkersfearedracialmixing– Serviceworkersproveddifficulttoorganize– Unionmembershippeakedin1950s,thenbeganslowdecline


– Democraticadministrationtookstepstoforestalleconomicdownturn:• Soldwarfactoriesandgovernmentinstallationstoprivatebusinessatfire-saleprices• SecuredpassageofEmploymentActof1946:

– Madegovernmentpolicy“topromotemaximumemployment,production,andpurchasingpower”

– CreatedthreememberCouncilofEconomicAdviserstoprovidepresidentwithdataandrecommendationsonimplementation

• 1944passageofServicemen'sReadjustmentAct– BetterknownasGIBillofRights,orGIBill:


– Fearedjobmarketnotabletoabsorbsomanyreturningvets– Offered$20aweekforupto52weeksincompensation– Generousprovisionforsendingformersoldierstoschool– Someeightmillionveteransadvancedtheireducation– Mostattendedtechnicalandvocationalschools– Sometwomillionattendedcollegesanduniversities– Totalspentoneducation=$14.5billionintaxpayerdollars– ActenabledVeteransAdministrationtoguarantee$16billioninloansforvetstobuyhomes,farms,andsmallbusinesses

– Actnurturedrobustandlong-livedeconomicexpansionandprofoundlyshapedentirehistoryofpostwarera

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XIII.DemocraticDivisionsin1948

• 1948election:– Republicans(woncontrolofCongressin1946)• GatheredinPhiladelphiain1948tochoosetheirpresidentialcandidate• NominatedThomasE.Deweyagain

– DemocratschoseTruman:• Infaceofvehementoppositionbysoutherndelegates

– Alienatedbyhisstrongstandinfavorofcivilrightsforblacks,especiallyhisdecisionin1948todesegregatemilitary

XIII.DemocraticDivisionsin1948(cont.)

• Truman'snominationsplitparty:– EmbitteredsouthernDemocratsfromthirteenstates• MetinconventioninBirmingham,Alabama• NominatedGovernorJ.StromThurmondofSouthCarolinaonStates'Rightspartyticket

– HenryA.Wallacealsothrewhishatin:• NominatedatPhiladelphiabynewProgressiveparty• OpposedTruman'sget-tough-with-Russiapolicies

–WithDemocratssplit,Dewey'svictoryseemedassured

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• Trumandeliveredover300hundredspeeches• LashedoutatTaft-Hartley“slave-labor”law• And“do-nothing”RepublicanCongress

–Whippedupsupportforhis• Programofcivilrights• Improvedlaborbenefits• Healthinsurance

– Onelectionnight,ChicagoTribuneearlyedition:“DEWEYDEFEATSTRUMAN”

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• Electionresults:– Trumanswepttostunningtriumph• Thurmondtook39electoralvotesinSouth• Trumanwon303electoralvotes,primarilyfromSouth,Midwest,andWest• Dewey's189electoralvotesprincipallyfromeast• Tomakeitsweeter,DemocratsregainedCongress

– Truman'svictoryrestedonfarmers,workers,andblacks,allofwhomwereRepublican-wary


• FourthpointofTruman'sinauguraladdress– Thereafterknownas“PointFour”• Lendmoneyandtechnicalaidtounderdevelopedlandstohelpthemhelpthemselves• Trumanwantedtospendmillionstokeepunderprivilegedpeoplesfrombecomingcommunists– Ratherthanbillionstoshootthemaftertheybecamecommunists

• Programofficiallylaunchedin1950– TohelpimpoverishednationsinLatinAmerica,Africa,MiddleEast,andAsia


• SweepingFairDealreformprogram– PresentedtoCongressin1949for:• Improvedhousing• Fullemployment• Nationalhealthinsurance• Higherminimumwage• Betterfarmpricesupports• NewTVAs• ExtensionofSocialSecurity


– MostproposalskilledbyoppositionfromcongressionalRepublicansandsouthernDemocrats• Onlymajorsuccesses:

– Raisedminimumwage– ProvidedforpublichousinginHousingActof1949– Extendedold-ageinsurancetomorebeneficiariesinSocialSecurityActof1950

XIV.TheLongEconomicBoom, 1950–1970

• 1950seconomicsurge:• U.S.economicperformancebecameenvyofworld• Nationalincomenearlydoubledin1950s• Nearlydoubledagainin1960s• Shootthroughtrillion-dollarmarkin1973• Americans,6%ofworld'spopulation,enjoyedabout40%ofplanet'swealth• Fantasticeruptionofaffluence• Prosperityunderwrotesocialmobility• Pavedwayforsuccessofcivilrightsmovement

XIV.TheLongEconomicBoom,1950-1970(cont.)

• Fundedvastnewwelfareprograms(e.g.,Medicare)• GaveAmericansconfidencetoexerciseunprecedentedinternationalleadership

– Americansdrankdeeplyfromgildedgoblet:• Madeupforsufferingsof1930s• Determinedto“gettheirs”whilegettingwasgood• “Middleclass”households(earnbetween$3,000and$10,000ayear)doubledtoinclude60%ofAmericansbymid-1950s• 60%offamiliesownedtheirownhomesin1960,comparedto40%in1920s• 1960:nearly90%offamiliesownedatelevision

XIV.TheLongEconomicBoom,1950-1970(cont.)

• Womenreapedgreatrewards:– Urbanofficesandshopsprovidedbonanzaofemployment– Greatmajorityofnewjobscreatedwenttowomen– Especiallyasservicesectoroutgrewmanufacturingsector– Womenaccountedfor¼ofU.S.workforceatendofWWIIandnearly½by1990s

– Yetpopularcultureglorifiedtraditionalfemininerolesofhomemakerandmother

– Clashbetweendemandsofsuburbanhousewiferyandrealitiesofemploymenteventuallysparkedfeministrevoltin1960s

XV.TheRootsofPostwarProsperity

• Whatpropelledeconomicgrowth:– SecondWorldWaritself:• USAusedwartofireupfactoriesandrebuildeconomy

– Muchrestedonunderpinningsofcolossalpostwarmilitarybudgets(seeFigure35.2)• FueledbymassiveappropriationsforKoreanWaranddefensespending(10%ofGNP)• Pentagondollarsprimedpumpsofhigh-technologyindustries—aerospace,plastics,andelectronics

Figure 35-2 p841

XV.TheRootsofPostwarProsperity(cont.)

• Militarybudgetfinancedmuchscientificresearchanddevelopment(“RandD”)– Unlockingsecretsofnaturekeytounleashingeconomicgrowth

– Cheapenergyfedeconomicboom:• AmericansandEuropeanscontrolledflowofabundantpetroleumofMiddleEasttokeeppriceslow• Americansdoubledoilconsumption(1945-'70)asthey:

– Builtendlessribbonsofhighways– Installedair-conditioninginhomes– Engineeredsixfoldincreaseincountry'selectricity-generatingcapacitybetween1945-'70


– Spectaculargainsinworkerproductivity• 1950s:onaverageproductivityincreased3%peryear• Enhancedbyrisingeducationallevelofworkforce

– By1970,nearly90%ofschoolagepopulationenrolledineducationalinstitutions

– Bettereducatedandbetterequippedworkersin1970couldproducetwiceperhourasmuchasin1950

– Risingproductivityin1950sand1960svirtuallydoubledaverageAmerican'sstandardoflivinginpostwaryears

– Changesinnation'sbasiceconomicstructure– Acceleratingshiftofworkforceoutofagriculture

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• Consolidationproducedgiantagribusinessesabletoemploycostlymachines• Withmechanization,newfertilizers,governmentsubsidiesandpricesupports:– Onefarmworkercouldnowfeed50people,comparedto15peoplein1940s

– Farmersnowplowedfieldsinair-conditionedtractorcabs,listeningtostereophonicradios

– Byendof1900s,farmersmadeuponly2%ofworkingAmericans—yetfedmuchofworld

XVI.TheSmilingSunbelt• PopulationredistributionbegunbyWWII:

• Americanshadalwaysbeenapeopleonthemove• After1945,onaverage30millionpeoplechangedresidenceseveryyear• Familiesespeciallyfeltstrainofseparation• Popularityofadvicebooksonchild-rearing:

– Dr.BenjaminSpock'sTheCommonSenseBookofBabyandChildCare

• Influidpostwarneighborhoods,friendshipshardtosustain• Mobilityexactedhighhumancostinloneliness/isolation

XVI.TheSmilingSunbelt(cont.)

• GrowthofSunbelt—15-statearea:• FromVirginiathroughFlorida,Texas,Arizona,California• HadpopulationgrowthratetwicethatofNortheast• Californiaby1963=mostpopulacestateinUSA• SouthandSouthwestanewfrontier• Distributionofpopulationincrease,1958(seeMap35.4)• FederalfundskeytoprosperityofSouthandWeststates:

– Annuallyreceived$444billionmorethanNorthandMidwestby2000s

– Neweconomicwarbetweenstatesshapedup• BigeffectsonpresidencyandHouseofRepresentatives

Map 35-4 p843

XVII.TheRushtotheSuburbs

• Inallregions,whitesfledcitiesfornewsuburbs(seeMakersofAmerica)– Governmentpoliciesencouragedmovementawayfromurbancenters• FederalHousingAdministration(FHA)andVeteransAdministration(VA)offeredhome-loanguarantees• Taxdeductionsforinterestpaymentsonhomemortgagesafinancialincentive• Government-builthighwaysspedcommuterstosuburbanhomes;facilitatedmassmigration

XVII.TheRushtotheSuburbs(cont.)

• Homeconstructionindustryboomedin1950sand1960s– Levittownrevolutionizedtechniquesofhomeconstruction– Helpedpeoplemovetosuburbs– Criticswailedatmonotonyofsuburban“tract”development

• “Whiteflight”tosuburbsleftinnercitiesblack,brown,andbroke(seeMakersofAmericainChap.36)• Businesses(andtheirtaxes)leftcitiesfornewsuburbanmalls• GovernmentpoliciesaggravatedpatternofresidentialsegregationbyoftendenyingFHAmortgagestoblacks– Limitedblackmobilityoutofcity,sentthemtourbanpublichousingprojects—thussolidifyingracialseparation

– Blacksmissedoutonhugeincreaseinvalueofsuburbanhomes

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XVIII.ThePostwarBabyBoom

• Babyboom:– Hugeleapinbirthrateinfifteenyearsafter1945:• Recordnumberofmarriagesatwar'send• Beganimmediatelytofillnation'semptycradles• Touchedoffdemographicexplosionadding50milliontonationbyendof1950s• Crestedin1957• By1973,fertilityratesdroppedbelowpointnecessarytomaintainexistingpopulationwithoutimmigration

XVIII.ThePostwarBabyBoom(cont.)

– Boom-or-bustcycleofbirthsbegotbulgingwavealongAmericanpopulationcurve• Forexample,increasedelementaryschoolenrollmentstonearly34millionby1970• Thenaclosingofelementaryschoolsandunemploymentofteachersinlate1970s

– By1960s,economicshiftofbabyproductstoyouthproducts(“youthculture”)

– Babyboomerscontinuedtoaffectcultureandeconomyastheyaged

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Documents

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